Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-2brh9 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-23T11:13:58.529Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Do direct market farms use fewer agricultural chemicals? Evidence from the US census of agriculture

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  16 January 2018

Ethan D. Schoolman*
Affiliation:
Department of Human Ecology, Rutgers University, 55 Dudley Rd., New Brunswick, NJ 08901, USA
*
Author for correspondence: Ethan D. Schoolman, E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract

Are strong local food systems better for the environment than conventional food systems where relatively close proximity between points of production and consumption is not a defining characteristic? Despite growing support for efforts to strengthen local food systems, surprisingly little is known about the relationship of local food to environmental sustainability. In particular, the relationship of local food systems to the use of agricultural chemicals to manage pests, weeds and disease has not been a subject of systematic research. In this paper, I use longitudinal data from the US Census of Agriculture to explore whether growth in local food systems is associated with decreased on-farm use of agricultural chemicals. Drawing on county-level data from 1997 to 2012, I find that an increase in the strength of local food systems—whether measured as the number of farms that market products directly to consumers, or as the total value of direct market products—has been broadly associated with a decrease in spending on agricultural chemicals in the USA as a whole. But the magnitude of the relationship between direct marketing to consumers and changes in agricultural chemical use has dwindled over time, to the point where it is not clear whether contemporary local food systems are still incentivizing farmers to reduce their use of pesticides. Overall, this study lends new credence to the idea that robust local food systems can benefit the environment. But even where just one dimension of agriculture's impact on the environment is concerned, the characteristics of local food systems appear to have varied over time—a qualification that argues strongly for further research into the relationship of local food to agricultural practice.

Type
Research Paper
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2018 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Adams, DC and Salois, MJ (2010) Local versus organic: a turn in consumer preferences and willingness-to-pay. Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems 25(4), 331341.Google Scholar
Adeel, M, Song, X, Wang, Y, Francis, D and Yang, Y (2017) Environmental impact of estrogens on human, animal and plant life: a critical review. Environment International 99(Suppl. C), 107119.Google Scholar
Agricultural Marketing Resource Center (2014) Farmers’ Markets. Available at http://www.agmrc.org/markets-industries/food/farmers-markets (Accessed 1 September 2016).Google Scholar
Allen, P (1999) Reweaving the food security safety net: mediating entitlement and entrepreneurship. Agriculture and Human Values 16(2), 117129.Google Scholar
Allison, PD (2002) Missing Data, 1st edn. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.Google Scholar
Allison, PD (2009) Fixed Effects Regression Models, 1st edn. Los Angeles, CA: Sage Publications.Google Scholar
Anselin, L (2002) Under the hood: issues in the specification and interpretation of spatial regression models. Journal of Agricultural Economics 27, 247267.Google Scholar
Avetisyan, M, Hertel, T and Sampson, G (2014) Is local food more environmentally friendly? The GHG emissions impacts of consuming imported versus domestically produced food. Environmental and Resource Economics 58(3), 415462.Google Scholar
Baker, D, Hamshaw, K and Kolodinsky, J (2009) Who shops at the market? Using consumer surveys to grow farmers’ markets: findings from a regional market in northwestern vermont. Journal of Extension 47(6), 19.Google Scholar
Baumann, S, Engman, A, Huddart-Kennedy, E and Johnston, J (2017) Organic vs. Local: comparing individualist and collectivist motivations for ‘ethical’ food consumption. Canadian Food Studies/La Revue canadienne des études sur l'alimentation 4(1), 6886.Google Scholar
Beam, AL, Thilmany, DD, Pritchard, RW, Garber, LP, Metre, DCV and Olea-Popelka, FJ (2016) Distance to slaughter, markets and feed sources used by small-scale food animal operations in the United States. Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems 31(1), 4959.Google Scholar
Bean, M and Sharp, JS (2011) Profiling alternative food system supporters: the personal and social basis of local and organic food support. Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems 26(3), 243254.Google Scholar
Bell, A and Jones, K (2015) Explaining fixed effects: random effects modeling of time-series cross-sectional and panel data. Political Science Research and Methods 3(1), 133153.Google Scholar
Belotti, F, Hughes, G and Mortari, AP (2013) XSMLE—A Command to Estimate Spatial Panel Models in Stata. Available at www.stata.com/meeting/germany13/abstracts/materials/de13_mortari.pdf (Accessed 1 June 2016).Google Scholar
Bengtsson, J, Ahnström, J and Weibull, AC (2005) The effects of organic agriculture on biodiversity and abundance: a meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Ecology 42(2), 261269.Google Scholar
Berry, W (2010) What Are People For? Essays, 2nd edn. Berkeley, CA: Counterpoint.Google Scholar
Biswas, S, Ali, MN, Goswami, R and Chakraborty, S (2014) Soil health sustainability and organic farming: a review. Journal of Food Agriculture and Environment 12(3–4), 237243.Google Scholar
Bloom, JD and Hinrichs, CC (2017) The long reach of lean retailing: firm embeddedness and Wal-Mart's implementation of local produce sourcing in the US. Environment and Planning A 49(1), 168185.Google Scholar
Bodner, TE (2008) What improves with increased missing data imputations? Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal 15(4), 651675.Google Scholar
Born, B and Purcell, M (2006) Avoiding the local trap: scale and food systems in planning research. Journal of Planning Education and Research 26(2), 195207.Google Scholar
Brown, JC and Purcell, M (2005) There's nothing inherent about scale: political ecology, the local trap, and the politics of development in the Brazilian Amazon. Geoforum 36(5), 607624.Google Scholar
Buck, D, Getz, C and Guthman, J (1997) From farm to table: the organic vegetable commodity chain of northern California. Sociologia Ruralis 37(1), 320.Google Scholar
Cañette, I and Marchenko, Y (2016) Combining results other than coefficients in e(b) with multiply imputed data. Available at http://www.stata.com/support/faqs/statistics/combine-results-with-multiply-imputed-data/ (Accessed 12 July 2017).Google Scholar
Carolan, MS (2006) Social change and the adoption and adaptation of knowledge claims: whose truth do you trust in regard to sustainable agriculture? Agriculture and Human Values 23(3), 325339.Google Scholar
Chagnon, M, Kreutzweiser, D, Mitchell, EAD, Morrissey, CA, Noome, DA and Sluijs, JPV (2015) Risks of large-scale use of systemic insecticides to ecosystem functioning and services. Environmental Science and Pollution Research 22(1), 119134.Google Scholar
Chang, Y, Li, G, Yao, Y, Zhang, L and Yu, C (2016) Quantifying the water-energy-food nexus: current status and trends. Energies 9(2), 117.Google Scholar
Clement, MT, Ergas, C and Greiner, PT (2015) The environmental consequences of rural and urban population change: an exploratory spatial panel study of forest cover in the southern United States, 2001–2006. Rural Sociology 80(1), 108136.Google Scholar
Cleveland, DA, Carruth, A and Mazaroli, DN (2015) Operationalizing local food: goals, actions, and indicators for alternative food systems. Agriculture and Human Values 32(2), 281297.Google Scholar
Constance, DH, Choi, JY and Lyke-Ho-Gland, H (2008) Conventionalization, bifurcation, and quality of life: certified and noncertified organic farmers in Texas. Southern Rural Sociology 23(1), 208234.Google Scholar
Cox, NJ (2011) Stata tip 96: cube roots. The Stata Journal 11(1), 149154.Google Scholar
Cranfield, J, Henson, S and Blandon, J (2012) The effect of attitudinal and sociodemographic factors on the likelihood of buying locally produced food. Agribusiness 28(2), 205221.Google Scholar
Crosson, P (1989) What is alternative agriculture? American Journal of Alternative Agriculture 4(1), 2832.Google Scholar
Curtis, F (2003) Eco-localism and sustainability. Ecological Economics 46(1), 83102.Google Scholar
DeLind, LB (2011) Are local food and the local food movement taking us where we want to go? Or are we hitching our wagons to the wrong stars? Agriculture and Human Values 28(2), 273283.Google Scholar
Dormann, CF, McPherson, JM, Araújo, M, Bivand, R, Bolliger, J, Carl, G, Davies, R, Hirzel, A, Jetz, W, Kissling, W, Kühn, I, Ohlemüller, R, Peres-Neto, P, Reineking, B, Schröder, B, Schurr, F and Wilson, R (2007) Methods to account for spatial autocorrelation in the analysis of species distributional data: a review. Ecography 30(5), 609628.Google Scholar
Drukker, DM, Peng, H, Prucha, IR and Raciborski, R (2013) Creating and managing spatial-weighting matrices with the spmat command. The Stata Journal 13(2), 242286.Google Scholar
Duru, M, Therond, O, Martin, G, Martin-Clouaire, R, Magne, MA, Justes, E, Journet, EP, Aubertot, JN, Savary, S, Bergez, JE and Sarthou, JP (2015) How to implement biodiversity-based agriculture to enhance ecosystem services: a review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development 35(4), 12591281.Google Scholar
Economic Research Service (2000) Farm Resource Regions. Washington, DC: United States Department of Agriculture.Google Scholar
Edwards-Jones, G (2010) Does eating local food reduce the environmental impact of food production and enhance consumer health? The Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 69(4), 582591.Google Scholar
Edwards-Jones, G, Canals, L, Hounsome, N, Truninger, M, Koerber, G, Hounsome, B, Cross, P, York, EH, Hospido, A, Plassmann, K, Harris, IM, Edwards, RT, Day, GAS, Tomos, AD, Cowell, SJ and Jones, DL (2008) Testing the assertion that ‘local food is best’: the challenges of an evidence-based approach. Trends in Food Science and Technology 19(5), 265274.Google Scholar
Environmental Protection Agency (2016) Local Foods, Local Places: Summary Reports. Available at https://www.epa.gov/smartgrowth/local-foods-local-places-summary-reports (Accessed 15 July 2016).Google Scholar
Feenstra, GW (1997) Local food systems and sustainable communities. American Journal of Alternative Agriculture 12(1), 2836.Google Scholar
Foley, JA, Ramankutty, N, Brauman, KA, Cassidy, ES, Gerber, JS, Johnston, M, Mueller, ND, O'Connell, C, Ray, DK, West, PC, Balzer, C, Bennett, EM, Carpenter, SR, Hill, J, Monfreda, C, Polasky, S, Rockström, J, Sheehan, J, Siebert, S, Tilman, D and Zaks, DPM (2011) Solutions for a cultivated planet. Nature 478(7369), 337342.Google Scholar
Follett, JR (2009) Choosing a food future: differentiating among alternative food options. Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics 22(1), 3151.Google Scholar
Forssell, S and Lankoski, L (2014) The sustainability promise of alternative food networks: an examination through ‘alternative’ characteristics. Agriculture and Human Values 32(1), 6375.Google Scholar
Galt, RE, O'Sullivan, L, Beckett, J and Hiner, CC (2012) Community supported agriculture is thriving in the central valley. California Agriculture 66(1), 814.Google Scholar
Gibbs, KE, Mackey, RL and Currie, DJ (2009) Human land use, agriculture, pesticides and losses of imperiled species. Diversity and Distributions 15(2), 242253.Google Scholar
Golgher, AB and Voss, PR (2016) How to interpret the coefficients of spatial models: spillovers, direct and indirect effects. Spatial Demography 4(3), 175205.Google Scholar
Good Earth Food Alliance (2016) Top 10 reasons to buy local food. Available at http://www.goodearthfoodalliance.com/top-ten-reasons-for-buying-local (Accessed 16 August 2016).Google Scholar
Graham, JW, Olchowski, AE and Gilreath, TD (2007) How many imputations are really needed? Some practical clarifications of multiple imputation theory. Prevention Science: The Official Journal of the Society for Prevention Research 8(3), 206213.Google Scholar
Griffin, LN, Pavela, G and Arroyo, J (2015) Tourism and the treadmill of production: a cross-national analysis. Environmental Sociology 1(2), 127138.Google Scholar
Guthman, J (2004) Agrarian Dreams: The Paradox of Organic Farming in California. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Hallmann, CA, Sorg, M, Jongejans, E, Siepel, H, Hofland, N, Schwan, H, Stenmans, W, Müller, A, Sumser, H, Hörren, T, Goulson, D and Kroon, H (2017) More than 75 percent decline over 27 years in total flying insect biomass in protected areas. PLOS ONE 12(10), e0185809.Google Scholar
Halweil, B (2004) Eat Here: Reclaiming Homegrown Pleasures in a Global Supermarket. New York: W. W. Norton & Company.Google Scholar
Hamlin, HJ and Guillette, LJ (2011) Embryos as targets of endocrine disrupting contaminants in wildlife. Birth Defects Research Part C: Embryo Today: Reviews 93(1), 1933.Google Scholar
Harel, O (2009) The estimation of R 2 and adjusted R 2 in incomplete data sets using multiple imputation. Journal of Applied Statistics 36(10), 11091118.Google Scholar
Heckman, J (2005) A history of organic farming: transitions from Sir Albert Howard's ‘war in the soil’ to USDA national organic program. Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems 21(3), 143150.Google Scholar
Hemmerling, S, Hamm, U and Spiller, A (2015) Consumption behaviour regarding organic food from a marketing perspective—a literature review. Organic Agriculture 5(4), 277313.Google Scholar
Hester, RE and Harrison, RM (eds) (2017) Agricultural Chemicals and the Environment: Issues and Potential Solutions, 2nd edn. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry.Google Scholar
Hole, DG, Perkins, AJ, Wilson, JD, Alexander, IH, Grice, PV and Evans, AD (2005) Does organic farming benefit biodiversity? Biological Conservation 122(1), 113130.Google Scholar
Hughner, RS, McDonagh, P, Prothero, A, Shultz, CJ and Stanton, J (2007) Who are organic food consumers? A compilation and review of why people purchase organic food. Journal of Consumer Behaviour 6(2–3), 94110.Google Scholar
Hunt, A (2007) Consumer interactions and influences on farmers’ market vendors. Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems 22(1), 5466.Google Scholar
Hunt, AR (2015) Civic Engagement in Food System Governance: A Comparative Perspective of American and British Local Food Movements. London, New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Jarosz, L (2000) Understanding agri-food networks as social relations. Agriculture and Human Values 17(3), 279283.Google Scholar
Johnson, R, Aussenberg, RA and Cowen, T (2012) The Role of Local Food Systems in U.S. Farm Policy. Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service.Google Scholar
Johnston, J, Biro, A and MacKendrick, N (2009) Lost in the supermarket: the corporate-organic foodscape and the struggle for food democracy. Antipode 41(3), 509532.Google Scholar
Kennedy, EH, Johnston, J and Parkins, JR (2017) Small-p politics: how pleasurable, convivial and pragmatic political ideals influence engagement in eat-local initiatives. The British Journal of Sociology, 121. doi: 10.1111/1468-4446.12298.Google Scholar
Kloppenburg, J, Hendrickson, J and Stevenson, GW (1996) Coming in to the foodshed. Agriculture and Human Values 13(3), 3342.Google Scholar
Köhler, HR and Triebskorn, R (2013) Wildlife ecotoxicology of pesticides: can we track effects to the population level and beyond? Science 341(6147), 759765.Google Scholar
Lappé, FM and Lappé, A (2002) Hope's Edge: The Next Diet for a Small Planet. New York: Jeremy P. Tarcher/Putnam.Google Scholar
Lexmond, MB, Bonmatin, JM, Goulson, D and Noome, DA (2015) Worldwide integrated assessment on systemic pesticides. Environmental Science and Pollution Research 22(1), 14.Google Scholar
Lilico, A (2008) Buying local is not necessarily green. Economic Affairs 28(2), 6364.Google Scholar
Low, SA, Adalja, A, Beaulieu, E, Key, N, Martinez, S, Melton, A, Perez, A, Ralston, K, Stewart, H, Suttles, S, Vogel, S and Jablonski, BBR (2015) Trends in U.S. Local and Regional Food Systems. Washington, DC: United States Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service.Google Scholar
Lyson, TA (2004) Civic Agriculture: Reconnecting Farm, Food, and Community. Lebanon, NH: University Press of New England.Google Scholar
Lyson, TA and Guptill, A (2004) Commodity agriculture, civic agriculture and the future of U.S. Farming. Rural Sociology 69(3), 370385.Google Scholar
MacRae, R, Cuddeford, V, Young, SB and Matsubuchi-Shaw, M (2013) The food system and climate change: an exploration of emerging strategies to reduce GHG emissions in Canada. Agroecology and Sustainable Food Systems 37(8), 933963.Google Scholar
Maeder, P, Fliessbach, A, Dubois, D, Gunst, L, Fried, P and Niggli, U (2002) Soil fertility and biodiversity in organic farming. Science 296(5573), 16941697.Google Scholar
Mariola, MJ (2008) The local industrial complex? Questioning the link between local foods and energy use. Agriculture and Human Values 25(2), 193196.Google Scholar
Martinez, S, Hand, MS, Pra, MD, Pollack, S, Ralston, K, Smith, T, Vogel, S, Clark, S, Tauer, L, Lohr, L, Low, SA and Newman, C (2010) Local Food Systems: Concepts, Impacts, and Issues. Washington, DC: United States Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service.Google Scholar
McCaffrey, SJ and Kurland, NB (2015) Does ‘local’ mean ethical? The U.S. ‘buy local’ movement and CSR in SMEs. Organization and Environment 28(3), 286306.Google Scholar
Meas, T, Hu, W, Batte, MT, Woods, TA and Ernst, S (2015) Substitutes or complements? Consumer preference for local and organic food attributes. American Journal of Agricultural Economics 97(4), 10441071.Google Scholar
Megicks, P, Memery, J and Angell, RJ (2012) Understanding local food shopping: unpacking the ethical dimension. Journal of Marketing Management 28(3–4), 264289.Google Scholar
Mitchell, S (2009) The Corporate Co-Opt of Local. Institute for Local Self-Reliance. Available at https://ilsr.org/corporate-coopt-local/ (Accessed 16 September 2016).Google Scholar
Mnif, W, Hassine, AIH, Bouaziz, A, Bartegi, A, Thomas, O and Roig, B (2011) Effect of endocrine disruptor pesticides: a review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 8(6), 22652303.Google Scholar
Nabhan, GP (2002) Coming Home to Eat: The Pleasures and Politics of Local Foods. New York: Norton.Google Scholar
National Agricultural Statistics Service (2011) Price Program: History, Concepts, Methodology, Analysis, Estimates, and Dissemination. Washington, DC: United States Department of Agriculture.Google Scholar
National Agricultural Statistics Service (2014) 2012 Census of Agriculture: United States Summary and State Data. Washington, DC: United States Department of Agriculture.Google Scholar
O'Hara, J and Pirog, R (2013) Economic impacts of local food systems: future research priorities. Journal of Agriculture, Food Systems, and Community Development 3(4), 3542.Google Scholar
O'Hara, JK (2011) Market Forces: Creating Jobs through Public Investment in Local and Regional Food Systems. Cambridge, MA: Union of Concerned Scientists.Google Scholar
Papaoikonomou, E and Ginieis, M (2017) Putting the farmer's face on food: governance and the producer–consumer relationship in local food systems. Agriculture and Human Values 34(1), 5367.Google Scholar
Pelletier, N, Audsley, E, Brodt, S, Garnett, T, Henriksson, P, Kendall, A, Kramer, KJ, Murphy, D, Nemecek, T and Troell, M (2011) Energy intensity of agriculture and food systems. Annual Review of Environment and Resources 36, 233246.Google Scholar
Peterson, GR (2013) Is eating locally a moral obligation? Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics 26(2), 421437.Google Scholar
Pisa, LW, Amaral-Rogers, V, Belzunces, LP, Bonmatin, JM, Downs, CA, Goulson, D, Kreutzweiser, DP, Krupke, C, Liess, M, McField, M, Morrissey, CA, Noome, DA, Settele, J, Simon-Delso, N, Stark, JD, Sluijs, JPV, Dyck, HV and Wiemers, M (2015) Effects of neonicotinoids and fipronil on non-target invertebrates. Environmental Science and Pollution Research 22(1), 68102.Google Scholar
Rankin, B (2009) Local food is not always the most sustainable. Harvard Design Magazine Fall/Winter 2009 (31), 101104.Google Scholar
Robertson, GP (2015) A sustainable agriculture? Daedalus 144(4), 7689.Google Scholar
Rodale Institute (2014) Regenerative Organic Agriculture and Climate Change: A Down-to-Earth Solution to Global Warming. Kutztown, PA: Rodale Institute. Available at http://rodaleinstitute.org/regenerative-organic-agriculture-and-climate-change/ (Accessed 5 September 2016).Google Scholar
Rodman, SO, Palmer, AM, Zachary, DA, Hopkins, LC and Surkan, PJ (2014) ‘They just say organic food is healthier’: perceptions of healthy food among supermarket shoppers in southwest Baltimore. Culture, Agriculture, Food and Environment 36(2), 8392.Google Scholar
Royston, P and White, I (2011) Multiple imputation by chained equations (MICE): implementation in stata. Journal of Statistical Software 45(4), 120.Google Scholar
Schneider, ML and Francis, CA (2005) Marketing locally produced foods: consumer and farmer opinions in Washington County, Nebraska. Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems 20(4), 252260.Google Scholar
Schnell, SM (2013) Food miles, local eating, and community supported agriculture: putting local food in its place. Agriculture and Human Values 30(4), 615628.Google Scholar
Singer, P and Mason, J (2007) The Ethics of What We Eat: Why Our Food Choices Matter. Emmaus, PA: Rodale Books.Google Scholar
Stehle, S and Schulz, R (2015) Agricultural insecticides threaten surface waters at the global scale. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 112(18), 57505755.Google Scholar
Stock, JH and Watson, MW (2008) Heteroskedasticity-robust standard errors for fixed effects panel data regression. Econometrica 76(1), 155174.Google Scholar
Story, M, Hamm, MW and Wallinga, D (2009) Research and action priorities for linking public health, food systems, and sustainable agriculture: recommendations from the Airlie conference. Journal of Hunger and Environmental Nutrition 4(3–4), 477485.Google Scholar
Sumner, J, Mair, H and Nelson, E (2010) Putting the culture back into agriculture: civic engagement, community and the celebration of local food. International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability 8(1/2), 5461.Google Scholar
Sustainable Table (2016) Local & Regional Food Systems. Available at http://www.sustainabletable.org/254/local-regional-food-systems (Accessed 27 August 2016).Google Scholar
Thilmany, D, Bond, CA and Bond, JK (2008) Going local: exploring consumer behavior and motivations for direct food purchases. American Journal of Agricultural Economics 90(5), 13031309.Google Scholar
UCLA: Statistical Consulting Group (2015) Stata Library: Analyzing Correlated (Clustered) Data. Available at www.ats.ucla.edu/stat/stata/library/cpsu.htm (Accessed 10 July 2015).Google Scholar
U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (2017) Producer Price Index by Commodity for Machinery and Equipment: Agricultural Machinery and Equipment. St. Louis, MO: Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis. Available at https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/WPU111 (Accessed 8 October 2017).Google Scholar
Vilsack, T (2016) New Markets, New Opportunities: Strengthening Local Food Systems and Organic Agriculture. Available at https://medium.com/usda-results/new-markets-new-opportunities-strengthening-local-food-systems-and-organic-agriculture-17b529c5ea90#.lwdvc0eft (Accessed 14 August 2016).Google Scholar
Von Hippel, PT (2009) How to impute interactions, squares, and other transformed variables. Sociological Methodology 39(1), 265291.Google Scholar
Watts, M and Williamson, S (2015) Replacing Chemicals with Biology: Phasing Out Highly Hazardous Pesticides with Agroecology. Pesticide Action Network Asia and the Pacific. Available at http://panna.org/sites/default/files/Phasing-Out-HHPs-with-Agroecology.pdf (Accessed 5 October 2017).Google Scholar
Weber, CL and Matthews, HS (2008) Food-miles and the relative climate impacts of food choices in the United States. Environmental Science and Technology 42(10), 35083513.Google Scholar
Wezel, A, Casagrande, M, Celette, F, Vian, JF, Ferrer, A and Peigné, J (2014) Agroecological practices for sustainable agriculture: a review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development 34(1), 120.Google Scholar
White, IR, Royston, P and Wood, A (2011) Multiple imputation using chained equations: issues and guidance for practice. Statistics in Medicine 30, 377399.Google Scholar
Wolf, MM, Spittler, A and Ahern, J (2005) A profile of farmers’ market consumers and the perceived advantages of produce sold at farmers’ markets. Journal of Food Distribution Research 36(1), 9198.Google Scholar
York, R and Rosa, EA (2012) Choking on modernity: a human ecology of air pollution. Social Problems 59(2), 282300.Google Scholar
Youngberg, G and DeMuth, SP (2013) Organic agriculture in the United States: a 30-year retrospective. Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems 28(4), 294328.Google Scholar
Zulauf, C and Rettig, N (2015) Have U.S. farm input prices followed U.S. crop prices? Farmdoc Daily 5, 171. Available at http://farmdocdaily.illinois.edu/2015/09/have-us-farm-input-prices-followed-us-crop-prices.html (Accessed 21 June 2017).Google Scholar