Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-l7hp2 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-25T06:16:16.094Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Effects of Holocene Climatic Change on some Tropical Geomorphic Processes

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 January 2017

Rhodes W. Fairbridge
Rhodes W. Fairbridge*
Affiliation:
Columbia University, New York, New York 10027 USA
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Man's interference with the landscape process places him in the role of a “paraglacial” agent: He tends to duplicate ice-age stresses such as deforestation, accelerated erosion, and climate alteration. Against a background climatic control dictated by the Milankovich mechanisms, the 10,000-year history of the Holocene has seen very large secondary modulations that must be better understood so that they may be distinguished from anthropogenic effects. If they are exogenetically controlled, as it seems, then they are probably predictable from astronomic data. Four geomorphic type areas are selected for demonstrating Holocene changes in tropical regions, because they have been somewhat neglected within the framework of Quaternary science and because they include some of the most fragile and easily disrupted environments: lakes, semiarid desert margins, coastlines, and coral reefs. In a nutshell, the tropical Holocene has seen three major changes: (a) the evolution from the hyperaridity of the last pleniglacial stage to the “postglacial pluvial”; (b) the “climatic optimum,” which was highly diachronous and strongly retarded as it shifted from low latitudes to high; (c) the postoptimum “deterioration” that has involved desiccation of lakes, readvances of the deserts, fall of sea level, and truncation of coral reefs. While this deterioration is predictable in terms of an interglacial-glacial climatic transition, strong natural climatic oscillations, not yet well understood, together with man's activities, make the future a cause for concern.

Type
Research Article
Information
Quaternary Research , Volume 6 , Issue 4 , December 1976 , pp. 529 - 556
Copyright
University of Washington

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Balout, L., ((1952)). Pluviaux interglaciaires et Prehistorie saharienne. Travaux Institut Recherches Sahariennes 8 9–21.Google Scholar
Beaty, C.B., ((1971)). Climatic change: some doubts. Geological Society of America Bulletin 82 1395–1398.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bell, B., ((1975)). Climate and the history of Egypt: The Middle Kingdom. American Journal of Archeology 79 223–269.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berglund, B., ((1971)). Littorina transgressions in Blekinge, South Sweden. Geologiska Föreningens Förhandlingar 92 625–652.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berry, L., Whiteman, A.J., ((1968)). The Nile in the Sudan. Geographical Journal 134 1–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bigarella, J.J., de Andrade, G.O., ((1965)). Contributions to the study of the Brazilian Quaternary. Wright, H.E., Frey, D.G., International Studies on the Quaternary Geological Society of America, Special Paper No. 84 433–451.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bloom, A.L., ((1970)). Holocene submergence in Micronesia as the standard for eustatic sea-level changes. Quaternaria 12 145–154.Google Scholar
Bloom, A.L., ((1971)). Glacio-eustatic and isostatic controls of sea level since the last glaciation. Turekian, K.K., Late Cenozoic Glacial Ages Yale University Press New Haven, Conn 355–379.Google Scholar
Bloom, A.L., ((1974)). Geomorphology of reef complexes. Laporte, L.F., Reefs in Time and Space Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists, Special Publication No. 18 .CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Booth, N.A., ((1957)). The Niger, the Volta and the Dahomey Gap as geographic barriers. Evolution 12 48–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bourdier, F., ((1971)). Les anciens rivages quaternaires en France. Théories et réalités. Quaternaria 15 105–110.Google Scholar
Bowler, J.M., ((1975)). Deglacial events in southern Australia: their age, nature, and paleoclimatic significance. Royal Society of New Zealand, Bulletin 13 75–82.Google Scholar
Bray, J.R., ((1974)). Glacial advance relative to volcanic activity since 1500 AD. Nature (London) 248 42–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bray, J.R., ((1976)). Volcanic triggering of glaciation. Nature (London) 260 414–415.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bryson, R.A., ((1976)). Some cultural and economic consequences of climatic change. Melbourne Climatic Conference Cambridge University Press Melbournein press.Google Scholar
Bull, C., Webb, P.N., ((1973)). Some recent developments in the investigation of the glacial history and glaciology of Antarctica. Van Zinderen Bakker, E.M., Paleocology of Africa Vol. 8 Balkema Capetown 55–84.Google Scholar
Burrows, C.J., ((1975)). Late Pleistocene and Holocene moraines of the Cameron Valley, Arrowsmith Range, Canterbury, New Zealand. Arctic and Alpine Research 7 125–140.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Butzer, K.W., Helgren, D.M., ((1972)). Late Cenozoic evolution of the Cape coast between Knysna and Cape St. Francis, South Africa. Quaternary Research 2 143–169.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Butzer, K.W., Isaac, G.L., Richardson, J.L., Washbourn-Kamau, C., ((1972)). Radiocarbon dating of East African lake levels. Science 175 1069–1076.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Claiborne, R., ((1970)). Climate, Man and History. Norton New York.Google Scholar
Coque, R., Dresch, J., Rognon, P., ((1972)). Géomorphologie et Quaternaire des régions arides. Recherches géographiques en France Congrès Géographique International Montreal 107–117Chapter 12.Google Scholar
Costin, A.B., Thom, B.G., Wimbush, D.J., Stuiver, M., ((1967)). Nonsorted steps in the Mt. Kosciusko area, Australia. Geological Society of America Bulletin 78 979–992.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Creer, K.M., Gross, D.L., Lineback, J.A., ((1976)). Origin of regional geomagnetic variations recorded by Wisconsinan and Holocene sediments from Lake Michigan, U. S. A., and Lake Windermere, England. Geological Society of America Bulletin 87 531–540.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Daly, R.A., ((1915)). The glacial control theory of coral reefs. Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences 51 157–251.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Damuth, J.E., Fairbridge, R.W., ((1970)). Equatorial Atlantic deep-sea arkosic sands and ice-age aridity in tropical South America. Geological Society of America Bulletin 81 189–206.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dansgaard, W., Johnson, S.J., Clausen, H.B., Langway, C.C., ((1971)). Climatic record revealed by Camp Century ice core. Turekian, K.K., Late Cenozoic Glacial Ages Yale University Press New Haven, Conn 37–56.Google Scholar
Darwin, C., ((1838)). On certain areas of elevation and subsidence in the Pacific and Indian Oceans, as deduced from the study of coral formation. Proceedings Geological Society London 2 552–554.Google Scholar
David, T.W., Sweet, G., ((1904)). The geology of Funafuti. The Atoll of Funafuti Royal Society London, Coral Reef Committee Report 61–111.Google Scholar
Davies, O., ((1972)). Pleistocene shorelines in southern and southeastern Cape Province. Annals Natal Museum 21 225–279.Google Scholar
de Jong, J.D., ((1967)). The Quaternary of the Netherlands. Rankama, K., The Quaternary Vol. 2 Interscience New York 301–426.Google Scholar
Delibrias, G., Dutil, P., ((1966)). Formations calcaire lacustres du Quaternaire supérieur dans le massif central saharien (Hoggar) et datations absolues. Comptes Rendus Academie Sciences, Paris 262 55–58.Google Scholar
Delibrias, G., Laborel, J., ((1971)). Recent variations of the sea level along the Brazilian coast. Quaternaria 14 45–49.Google Scholar
Denton, G.H., Karlén, W., ((1973)). Holocene climatic variations: their pattern and possible cause. Quaternary Research 3 155–205.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
de Ploey, J., ((1965)). Position géomorphologique, genèse et chronologie de certains depôts superficiels au Congo occidental. Quaternaria 7 131–154.Google Scholar
Diester-Haas, L., ((1976)). Late Quaternary climatic variations in northwest Africa from east Atlantic sediment cores. Quaternary Research 6 299–314.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deuser, W.G., Ross, E.H., Waterman, L.S., ((1976)). Glacial and pluvial periods: Their relationship revealed by Pleistocene sediments of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. Science 191 1168–1170.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Easton, W.H., Olson, E.A., ((1976)). Radiocarbon profile of Hanauma Reef, Oahu, Hawaii. Geological Society America Bulletin 87 711–719.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Einsele, G., Herm, D., Schwarz, H.U., ((1974)). Sea level fluctuation during the past 6000 yr at the coast of Mauritania. Quaternary Research 4 282–289.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ente, P.J., Zagwijn, W.H., Mook, W.G., ((1975)). The Calais deposits in the vicinity of Wieringen and the geogenesis of northern North Holland. Geologie en Mijnbouw 54 1–14.Google Scholar
Erhart, H., ((1956)). La Genèse des Sols. Esquisse d'une Théorie Géologique: Biostasie et Rhexistasie. Masson Paris.Google Scholar
Eronen, M., ((1974)). The history of the Litorina Sea and associated Holocene events. Commentationes Physico-Mathematicae (Fennica) 44 79–195.Google Scholar
Fairbridge, R.W., ((1950)). The geology and geomorphology of Point Peron, Western Australia. Journal of the Royal Society Western Australia 34 35–72.Google Scholar
Fairbridge, R.W., 1961a. Convergence of evidence on climatic change and ice ages. Annals New York Academy of Sciences 95 542–579.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fairbridge, R.W., 1961b. Eustatic changes in sea-level. Ahrens, L.H., Press, F., Rankama, K., Runcorn, S.K., Physics and Chemistry of the Earth Vol. 4 Pergamon London 99–185.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fairbridge, R.W., ((1962)). New radiocarbon dates of Nile sediments. Nature: (London) 196 108–110.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fairbridge, R.W., 1963a. Nile sedimentation above Wadi-Halfa during the last 20,000 years. Kush (Khartoum) 11 96–107.Google Scholar
Fairbridge, R.W., 1963b. Mean sea level related to solar radiation during the last 20,000 years. Changes of Climate Proceedings, Rome Symposium, 1960 UNESCO Paris 229–242.Google Scholar
Fairbridge, R.W., ((1968)). The Encyclopedia of Geomorphology. Reinhold New York.Google Scholar
Fairbridge, R.W., ((1971)). Quaternary shoreline problems at INQUA 1969. Quaternaria 15 1–18.Google Scholar
Fairbridge, R.W., 1972a. Climatology of a glacial cycle. Quaternary Research 2 283–302.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fairbridge, R.W., 1972b. Quaternary sedimentation in the Mediterranean region controlled by tectonics, paleoclimates and sea level. Stanley, D.J., The Mediterranean Sea Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross Stroudsburg, Pa 99–113.Google Scholar
Fairbridge, R.W., ((1976)). Shellfish-eating preceramic Indians in coastal Brazil. Science 191 353–359.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fairbridge, R.W., Teichert, C., ((1953)). Soil horizons and marine bands in the coastal limestones of Western Australia. Royal Society New South Wales, Journal and Proceedings 86 68–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Faure, H., ((1966)). Evolution des grands lacs sahariens à l'Holocene. Quaternaria 8 167–175.Google Scholar
Faure, H., Nanguin, E., Nydal, R., ((1963)). Formations lacustres du Quaternaire superieur du Niger oriental: diatomites et ages absolus. Bulletin Bureau Recherches Geologiques Minieres 3 41–63.Google Scholar
Flint, R.F., ((1971)). Glacial and Quaternary Geology. Wiley New York.Google Scholar
Flohn, H., ((1953)). Studien über die atmosphärische Zirkulation in der letzten Eiszeit. Erdkunde 7 266–275.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flohn, M., ((1974)). Background of a geological model of the initiation of the next glaciation. Quaternary Research 4 385–404.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Florin, S., ((1944)). Harstrandens förskjutningar och bebyggelseutvecklingen i östra Mellansverige under senkvartär tid. Geologiska Föreningens Förhandlingar 66 551–634.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frenzel, B., ((1973)). Climatic Fluctuations of the Ice Age. Western Reserve University Press Clevelandtranslation of “Die Klimaschwankungen des Eiszeitalters” (A.E.M. Nairn, Tr.).Google Scholar
Galloway, R.W., ((1970)). The full-glacial climate in the southwestern United States. Association American Geographers Annals 60 245–256.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gasse, F., Fontes, J.C., Rognon, P., ((1974)). Variations hydrologiques et extension des lacs Holocènes du Desert Danakil. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 15 109–148.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Geyh, M.A., ((1969)). Versuch einer chronologischen Gliedering des marinen Holozäns an der Nordseeküste mit Hilfe der statistischen Auswertung von 14C-Daten. Zeitschrift Deutschen Geologischen Gesellschaft 118 351–360.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Geyh, M.A., ((1971)). Middle and young Holocene sea-level changes as global contemporary events. Geologiska Föreningens Förhandlingar 93 679–692.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Geyh, M.A., Jäkel, D., ((1974)). Spätpleistozäne und holozäne Klimageschichte der Sahara aufgrund zugänglicher 14C-Daten. Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie, N.F. 18 82–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gill, E., ((1970)). Coast and continental shelf of Australia. Quaternaria 12 115–128.Google Scholar
Greensmith, J.T., Tucker, E.V., ((1973)). Holocene transgressions and regression on the Essex coast Outer Thames estuary. Geologie en Mijnbouw 52 193.Google Scholar
Gribben, J., ((1973)). Planetary alignments, solar activity and climate change. Nature (London) 246 453–454.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grove, A.T., ((1969)). landforms and climatic change in the Kalahari and Ngamiland. Geographical Journal 135 191–212.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grove, A.T., ((1971)). 2nd ed. Africa South of the Sahara Oxford University Press London.Google Scholar
Grove, A.T., Pullan, R.A., ((1963)). Some aspects of the Pleistocene palaeogeography of the Chad basin. Howell, H.C., Bourliere, F., African Ecology and Human Evolution Viking Fund Publications in Anthropology Vol. 36 230–245.Google Scholar
Hageman, B.P., ((1969)). Development of the western part of the Netherlands during the Holocene. Geologie en Mijnbouw 48 373–388.Google Scholar
Hillaire-Marcel, C., ((1976)). Deglaciation et relèvement isostatique à l'est de la Baie d'Hudson. Cahiers de Géographie de Quebec to appear.Google Scholar
Hoffmeister, J.E., Ladd, H.S., ((1945)). Solution effects on elevated limestone terraces. Bulletin Geological Society America 56 809–817.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holdahl, S.R., Morrison, N.L., ((1974)). Regional investigations of vertical crustal movements in the U. S., using precise relevellings and mareograph data. Tectonophysics 23 373–390.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoyanagi, M., ((1965)). Sand-buried ruins and shrinkage of rivers along the Old Silk Road region in the Tarim Basin. Journal of Geography (Tokyo Geographical Society) 74 1–12 Hoyanagi, M., Sand-buried ruins and shrinkage of rivers along the Old Silk Road region in the Tarim Basin Journal of Geography (Tokyo Geographical Society) 74 55–75.Google Scholar
Huntington, E., ((1915)). Civilization and Climate. 3rd rev. ed. 1924 Yale University Press New Haven, Conn.Google Scholar
Hurst, H.E., ((1952)). The Nile. Constable London.Google Scholar
Hurt, W.R., ((1974)). The interrelationships between the natural environment of Four Sambaquis, coast of Santa Catarina, Brazil. Occasional Papers No. 1 Indiana University Museum Bloomington, Ind.Google Scholar
Jardetzky, W.S., ((1962)). A periodic pole shift and deformation of the earth's crust. Journal of Geophysical Research 67 4461–4472.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jelgersma, S., de Jong, J., Zagwijn, W.H., Altena van Regteren, J.F., ((1970)). The coastal dunes of the western Netherlands; geology, vegetational history and archeology. Mededeelingen Rijks Geologische Dienst, N.S. 21 93–167.Google Scholar
Kendall, R.L., ((1969)). An ecological history of the Lake Victoria basin. Ecological Monographs 39 121–176.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kennett, J.P., Thunell, R.C., ((1975)). Global increase in Quaternary explosive volcanism. Science 187 497–503.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kershaw, A.P., ((1975)). Late Quaternary vegetation and climate in northeastern Australia. Royal Society of New Zealand, Bulletin 13 181–188.Google Scholar
Kuenen, P.H., ((1950)). Marine Geology. Wiley New York.Google Scholar
Kukla, G.J., ((1972)). Insolation and glacials. Boreas 1 63–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Labeyrie, J., Lalou, C., Delibrias, G., ((1969)). Études des transgressions marines sur l'atoll de Mururoa par la datation des differents niveaux de corail. Mururoa Direction de Centres d'Experimentations Nucleaires Paris 203–212.Google Scholar
Ladd, H.S., Newman, W.A., Sohl, N.F., ((1974)). Darwin Guyot, the Pacific's oldest atoll. Proceedings 2nd International Coral Reef Symposium Vol. 2 Great Barrier Reef Committee Brisbane.Google Scholar
Ladurie, E.L-R., ((1972)). Times of Feast, Times of Famine: A History of Climate Since the Year 1000. Allen and Unwin London.Google Scholar
Lamb, H.H., ((1969)). Climatic fluctuations. Flohn, H., World Survey of Climatology Vol. 2 Elsevier Amsterdam 173–249.Google Scholar
Lamb, H.H., ((1970)). Volcanic dust in the atmosphere; with a chronology and an assessment of its meteorological significance. Philosophical Transactions, Royal Society of London A 266 425–533.Google Scholar
Le Houérou, H.N., ((1970)). North Africa: past, present and future. Dregne, H., Arid Lands in Transition American Association Fourth Advancement of Science 277–278Washington, D.C..Google Scholar
Livingstone, D.A., ((1975)). Late Quaternary climate change in Africa. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 6 249–280.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MacNeil, F.S., ((1954)). The shape of atolls: An inheritance from subaerial erosion forms. American Journal of Science 252 402–427.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maley, J., ((1973)). Méchanisme des changements climatiques aux basses latitudes. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 14 193–227.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Martinussen, M., ((1962)). 14C-datings referring to shore lines, transgressions and glacial substages in northern Norway. Norges Geologiske Undersøkelse 215 37–67.Google Scholar
Mauny, R.A., ((1957)). Répartition de la grande faune éthiopienne du nordouest africain du Paleolithique à nos jours. Pan-African Congress, 3rd Chatto and Windus London 102–150.Google Scholar
McFadgen, B.G., ((1975)). Long-term cycles in the variation of atmospheric radiocarbon, related to changes in Holocene climate. Search 6 509–511.Google Scholar
Michel, P., ((1973)). Les bassins des fleuves Sénégal et Gambie. Étude morphologique. ORSTEM, Mémoirs Vol. 63 Paris.Google Scholar
Milliman, J., Emery, K.O., ((1968)). Sea level during the past 35,000 years. Science 162 1121–1123.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mörner, N.-A., ((1969)). The Late Quaternary history of the Kattegatt Sea and the Swedish West Coast. Deglaciation, shorelevel displacement, chronology, isostasy and eustasy. Sveriges Geologiska Undersökning C 640 487.Google Scholar
Mörner, N.-A., ((1976)). Eustatic changes during the last 8,000 years in view of radiocarbon calibration and new information from the Kattegatt region and other northwestern European areas. Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology 19 63–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mörner, N.-A., Rickard, D., ((1974)). Quantitative analysis of eustatic changes and climatic fluctuations. CNRS Colloque Internationale Vol. 219 142–153Paris.Google Scholar
Newell, N.D., Bloom, A.L., ((1970)). The reef flat and “two-meter eustatic terrace” of some Pacific atolls. Geological Society of America Bulletin 81 1881–1894.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Olausson, E., Haq, B.U., Karlsson, G.B., Olsson, I.U., ((1971)). Evidence in Indian Ocean cores of late Pleistocene changes in oceanic and atmopsheric circulation. Geologiska Föreningens Förhandlinger 93 51–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parmenter, C., Folger, D.W., ((1974)). Eolian biogenic detritus in deep-sea sediments: A possible index of equatorial ice age aridity. Science 184 695–697.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pollard, M., ((1968)). Floods according to an ancient Egyptian scientific chronicle. Journal of Geophysical Research 73 7158–7159.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rapp, A., ((1974)). A Review of Desertization in Africa: Water, Vegetation and Man Secretariat for International Ecology, Report 1. Stockholm.Google Scholar
Richardson, J.L., Richardson, A.E., ((1972)). History of an African rift lake and its climatic implications. Ecological Monographs 42 499–534.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rhodenburg, H., ((1970)). Morphodynamische Aktivitäts-und Stabilitätszeiten statt Pluvialund Interpulvialzeiten. Eiszeitalter and Gegenwart 21 81–96.Google Scholar
Rudzinski, K., ((1973)). Human interference in the world's weather, water balance and climate?. Universitas 15 179–182.Google Scholar
Sarma, A.V.N., ((1974)). Holocene paleoecology of south coastal Ecuador. Proceedings American Philosophical Society 118 93–134.Google Scholar
Sarnthein, M., Walger, E., ((1974)). Der äolische Sandstrom aus W-Sahara zur Atlantikküste. Geologische Rundschau 63 1065–1087.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schlanger, S.O., ((1963)). Subsurface Geology of Eniwetok Atoll 991–1066U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 260-BB.Google Scholar
Schneider, S.H., Mass, C., ((1975)). Volcanic dust, sunspots and temperature trends. Science 190 741–746.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schofield, J.C., ((1960)). Sea-level fluctuations during the last 4,000 years as recorded by chenier plain, Firth of Thames, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics 3 465–485.Google Scholar
Schofield, J.C., ((1973)). Post-glacial sea levels of Northland and Auckland. New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics 16 359–366.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schove, D.J., ((1964)). Solar cycles and equatorial climates. Geologische Rundschau 54 448–477.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Servant, M., Servant, S., Delibrias, G., ((1969)). Chronologie du Quaternaire recent des basses regions du Tchad. Comptes Rendus Academie Sciences, Paris 269 1603–1606.Google Scholar
Shepard, F.P., ((1963)). Thirty-five thousand years of sea level. Clemmens, T., Essays in Marine Geology in Honor of K. O. Emery University of Southern California Press Los Angeles 1–10.Google Scholar
Sherbrooke, W.C., Paylore, P., ((1973)). World Desertification: Cause and Effect. A Literature Review and Annotated Bibliography. University of Arizona, Arid Lands Resource Information Tuscon, ArizPaper 3.Google Scholar
Singh, G., Joshi, R.D., Singh, A.B., ((1972)). Stratigraphic and radiocarbon evidence for the age and development of three salt lake deposits in Rajasthan, India. Quaternary Research 2 496–505.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, H.T.U., ((1965)). Dune morphology and chronology in central and western Nebraska. Journal of Geology 73 557–578.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, P.E.L., ((1976)). Stone-age man on the Nile. Scientific American 235 30–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Street, F.A., Grove, A.T., ((1976)). Environmental and climatic implications of late Quaternary lake-level fluctuations in Africa. Nature (London) 261 385–390.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Suess, H.E., ((1970)). The Three causes of the secular 14C fluctuations, their amplitudes and time constants. Olsson, I., Radiocarbon Variations and Absolute Dating Wiley New York 595–604.Google Scholar
Temple, P.H., ((1967)). Causes of intermittent decline of the level of Lake Victoria during the late Pleistocene and Holocene. Liverpool Essays in Geography Longmans London 43–63.Google Scholar
Ten Brink, N.W., Weidick, A., ((1974)). Greenland ice-sheet history since the last glaciation. Quaternary Research 4 429–440.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ters, M., ((1973)). Les variations du niveau marin depuis 10,000 ans, le long du littoral Atlantique Francais. Bulletin Association Francaise du Quaternaire 36 114–135(INQUA Suppl.).Google Scholar
Thompson, L.G., Hamilton, W.L., Bull, C., ((1975)). Climatological implications of microparticle concentrations in the ice core from “Byrd” station, western Antarctica. Journal of Glaciology 14 433–444.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tooley, M.J., ((1974)). Sea-level changes during the last 9,000 years in northwest England. Geographical Journal 140 18–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tracey, J.I. Jr., Ladd, H.S., ((1974)). Quaternary history of Eniwetok and Bikini Atolls, Marshall Islands. Proceedings 2nd International Coral Reef Symposium Vol. 2 Great Barrier Reef Committee Brisbane 537–550.Google Scholar
Van der Hammen, T., ((1974)). The Pleistocene changes of vegetation and climate in tropical South America. Journal of Biogeography 1 3–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Van Zinderen Bakker, E.M., Coetzee, J.A., ((1972)). A reappraisal of late Quaternary climate evidence from tropical Africa. Palaeoecology of Africa Vol. 7 Balkema Cape Town.Google Scholar
Van Zuidam, R.A., ((1975)). Geomorphology and archaeology: Evidences of interrelation and historical sites in the Zaragoza region, Spain. Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie 19 319–328.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vita-Finzi, C., 1969a. The Mediterranean Valleys. Cambridge University Press CambridgeCambridge.Google Scholar
Vita-Finzi, C., 1969b. Late Quaternary alluvial chronology in Iran. Geologische Rundschau 58 951–973.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vita-Finzi, C., ((1972)). Supply of fluvial sediment to the Mediterranean during the last 20,000 years. Stanley, D.J., The Mediterranean Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross Stroudsburg, Pa.Google Scholar
Ward, W.T., ((1971)). Postglacial changes in level of land and sea. Geologie en Mijnbouw 50 703–718.Google Scholar
Williams, G., ((1970)). Piedmont sedimentation and late Quaternary chronology in the Biskra region of the northern Sahara. Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie, Supplement 10 40–63.Google Scholar
Williams, M.A.J., Adamson, D.A., ((1974)). Late Pleistocene desiccation along the White Nile. Nature (London) 248 584–586.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Woldstedt, P., 1958–1965. Das Eiszeitalter. F. Enke Verlag Stuttgart.Google Scholar
Zeuner, F.E., ((1953)). Das Problem der Pluvialzeiten. Geologische Rundschan 41 242–253.CrossRefGoogle Scholar