What contributions have been made within the eating disorders prevention field to integrated prevention?

Several meta-analyses and reviews have attempted to synthesize and quantify the available knowledge on the efficacy of programmes for the prevention of risk factors for ED⁽Reference Fingeret, Warren and Cepeda-Benito^70–Reference Stice, Shaw and Marti⁷³⁾ (see Table 1). We have examined these reviews with the aim of assessing the relevance given in the field of prevention of ED to variables that are of interest for the field of overweight and obesity prevention. In the first meta-analyses⁽Reference Stice and Shaw⁷²⁾, although 60 % of the programmes included content on the promotion of healthy weight-control behaviours, of these, just one selective programme included specific work with components related to physical activity and the promotion of a healthy lifestyle⁽Reference Zabinski, Calfas and Gehrman⁷⁴⁾. Examination of the outcome measures revealed that only nine of the thirty-seven effect sizes analysed for universal programmes, and seven of the twenty-three for selective programmes, included measures of interest for the prevention of obesity, such as BMI. In a subsequent meta-analysis⁽Reference Stice, Shaw and Marti⁷³⁾, of the total effect sizes calculated, in only 27 % of cases was there analysis of measures of interest for obesity prevention, such as BMI. Although this meta-analysis does not present a description of the content of the programmes reviewed, it mentions that one programme reduced risk for future onset of both ED symptoms and obesity⁽Reference Stice, Shaw and Burton⁷⁵⁾. In addition, it includes a school-based obesity prevention trial (‘Planet Health’) aimed at early high-school years that produced a significant reduction in the number of girls using extreme weight-loss practices compared with those in control schools in the follow-up measures⁽Reference Austin, Field and Wiecha⁷⁶⁾. The programmes included in another meta-analysis⁽Reference Fingeret, Warren and Cepeda-Benito⁷⁰⁾ focused exclusively on the analysis of results on variables traditionally studied in ED prevention programmes, such as knowledge, general eating pathology, dieting, body dissatisfaction and thin-ideal internalization. In the same line, the programmes included in a Cochrane review⁽Reference Pratt and Woolfenden⁷¹⁾ focused mainly on ED symptoms and other psychological variables such as affect and self-esteem. Only four programmes included BMI measures⁽Reference Dalle Grave, De Luca and Campello^77–Reference Favaro, Zanetti and Huon⁸⁰⁾, only one included a questionnaire on food habits⁽Reference O'Dea and Abraham⁸¹⁾, and only two included components addressing to health promotion and healthy weight control⁽Reference Killen, Taylor and Hammer^78, Reference Buddeberg-Fischer, Klaghofer and Gnam⁸²⁾.

Table 1 Reviews on the results of ED prevention programmes

ED, eating disorder; RCT, randomized controlled trial.

*The strength of meta-analysis and other systematic review depends largely on homogeneity of change measures⁽Reference Borenstein, Hedges and Higgins^147–Reference Rush, Firset and Blacker¹⁴⁹⁾. Thus, the interpretation of these results should be treated with caution, due to lack of agreement in the assessment of key variables, especially in the ED field where attitudes are customary measures.

†Criteria proposed by Cohen⁽Reference Cohen¹⁵⁰⁾ for evaluation of effect sizes: 0·2 (d) or 0·1 (r) indicates a small effect; 0·5 (d) or 0·3 (r) a moderate effect; and 0·8 (d) or 0·5 (r) a large effect.

These meta-analyses, focusing on ED prevention, have reviewed studies aimed at child, adolescent and adult populations, using different types of prevention approaches (universal, selective or indicated). In a recent, more focused, review of programmes that employed a universal prevention approach among youths, administered principally in the school context in eleven countries⁽Reference Lopez-Guimera and Sanchez-Carracedo⁸³⁾, similar results were reported. The inclusion of content related to the promotion of healthy lifestyle or healthy weight control was relatively frequent (about 40 %). However, only one programme (2 %) explicitly addressed the prevention of both obesity and ED⁽Reference Stock, Miranda and Evans⁸⁴⁾, and only two studies (4·5 %) were aimed at reducing shared risk factors on the spectrum of eating- and weight-related problems⁽Reference Haines, Neumark-Sztainer and Perry^85, Reference Neumark-Sztainer, Butler and Palti⁸⁶⁾.

In conclusion, these reviews revealed that very few programmes aimed at preventing risk factors for ED assessed the impact of the programme on weight status and other obesity-related outcomes. Although many ED prevention programmes seemed to include content of relevance to obesity prevention (e.g. promotion of healthy weight management), few studies examined the impact of the programmes on risk factors for obesity.

What contributions have been made within the obesity prevention field to integrated prevention?

In this section we look at some key reviews on obesity prevention programmes to assess which programmes incorporated content of potential relevance to the prevention of ED (e.g. promotion of positive body image, dieting reduction and reduction of weight-related teasing) and/or evaluated variables of interest to the ED field. Table 2 summarizes the main results of published reviews on obesity prevention programmes.

Table 2 Reviews on the results of obesity prevention programmes

RCT, randomized controlled trial; CCT, controlled clinical trial; NICE, National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence; PA, physical activity; TV, television; ED, eating disorder.

*The strength of meta-analysis and other systematic review depends largely on homogeneity of change measures⁽Reference Borenstein, Hedges and Higgins^147–Reference Rush, Firset and Blacker¹⁴⁹⁾. Thus, the interpretation of these results should be treated with caution, due to lack of agreement in the assessment of key variables, especially in the ED field where attitudes are customary measures.

†Criteria proposed by Cohen⁽Reference Cohen¹⁵⁰⁾ for evaluation of effect sizes: 0·2 (d) or 0·1 (r) indicates a small effect; 0·5 (d) or 0·3 (r) a moderate effect; and 0·8 (d) or 0·5 (r) a large effect.

As previously stated, Carter and Bulik⁽Reference Carter and Bulik⁶⁸⁾ concluded, in an analysis of a Cochrane review⁽Reference Summerbell, Waters and Edmunds⁸⁷⁾ on the prevention of obesity in children, that a minority of studies assessed symptoms of disordered eating, global measures of well-being and functioning, and psychosocial variables of particular relevance to the fields of both obesity and disordered eating, such as attitudes related to food and physical activity. Instead, the measures focused almost exclusively on aspects related to eating and physical activity, and the results were not very encouraging.

A year after the Cochrane review⁽Reference Summerbell, Waters and Edmunds⁸⁷⁾ came the publication of the first meta-analysis on the efficacy of programmes for the prevention of obesity aimed at children and adolescents⁽Reference Stice, Shaw and Marti⁸⁸⁾, whether or not these were originally conceptualized as programmes for the prevention of obesity (some were prevention programmes for other health problems). Examination of the characteristics and content of the interventions carried out revealed that practically all of the programmes included in that review focused on changes related to eating and physical activity. Just three universal programmes⁽Reference Gortmaker, Peterson and Wiecha^89–Reference Sahota, Rudolf and Dixey⁹¹⁾ (4·7 %) and five selective ones⁽Reference Stice, Shaw and Burton^75, Reference Robinson, Killen and Kraemer^92–Reference Story, Sherwood and Obarzanek⁹⁵⁾ (7·8 %) assessed the possible effects of the programme on disordered eating risk variables (e.g. body dissatisfaction or weight-control behaviours) or on other variables of interest for the spectrum of eating- and weight-related problems, such as media use. Another review published in the same year⁽Reference Doak, Visscher and Renders⁹⁶⁾ highlighted the need to focus more attention on preventing adverse outcomes of obesity prevention interventions, such as an unexpected increase in underweight prevalence.

Another highly relevant review was conducted by Britain's National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence in 2006⁽Reference Brown, Kelly and Summerbell^{97, 98)}. This review concluded that the interventions showing some preventive effects did so while the intervention was taking place, but there were scarcely any data on long-term outcomes. Furthermore, the review did not include a discussion about the impact of these programmes on variables traditionally examined within the ED field, such as body image or unhealthy weight-control behaviours. A recent update of this review including new studies is newly centred only on studies reporting weight outcomes⁽Reference Brown and Summerbell⁹⁹⁾. The results were quite similar.

Two other recent meta-analyses⁽Reference Gonzalez-Suarez, Worley and Grimmer-Somers^100, Reference Katz, O'Connell and Njike¹⁰¹⁾ examined effects of school-based interventions on childhood obesity and showed contradictory results regarding short-term and long-term results. These meta-analyses report data focused exclusively on commonly used weight-related outcomes.

Based upon these reviews, it can be concluded that considerably more work is needed to develop effective obesity prevention programmes. These reviews suggest that obesity prevention programmes focus almost solely on the promotion of changes in eating behaviour, physical activity and weight reduction, while assessments regarding the possible effects of these interventions on body image, disordered eating and unhealthy weight-control behaviours are minimal at best. Additionally, a review on school-based interventions conducted outside the USA identified just twenty-one interventions published between 1999 and 2005, highlighting the need for more obesity prevention programmes internationally⁽Reference Sharma¹⁰²⁾. However, as will be discussed further in the following sections, a number of interesting initiatives in this field are currently being implemented outside the USA.

Environmental approaches in the prevention of eating disorders

Within the ED prevention field, the need for more socio-environmental approaches has been stressed, given that children's body image, self-esteem, weight bias and eating behaviours are influenced by parents, peers, teachers, the school environment and their community and culture⁽Reference O'Dea^103, Reference Piran¹⁰⁴⁾. In this regard, some programmes have already incorporated sessions aimed at parents or school staff⁽Reference McVey, Tweed and Blackmore^105–Reference Varnado-Sullivan, Zucker and Williamson¹⁰⁸⁾, but to date there have been few large-scale initiatives aimed at modifying the different socio-environmental influences on the development of ED, in contrast to what has recently occurred in the field of obesity prevention, as will be discussed below.

Several governments around the world have developed public policy initiatives designed to prevent body dissatisfaction and ED including legislation, the use of non-binding industry codes of conduct and pledges, social marketing, and government support for school-based prevention⁽Reference Paxton¹⁰⁹⁾. But the intensity of these initiatives, their dissemination and the commitment of the governments involved have not been sufficient thus far. The state of Victoria in Australia is a rare example where serious attention has been given to a public health approach to prevent these problems⁽Reference Paxton¹¹⁰⁾. Actions taken have included an anti-dieting public campaign⁽¹¹¹⁾, a nationwide voluntary media code of conduct regarding the portrayal of models^{(112, 113)}, the training of teachers in ED prevention efforts⁽Reference Richardson, Paxton and Thomson¹¹⁴⁾, and a grant mechanism to support community efforts aimed at reducing risk factors for ED⁽¹¹⁵⁾.

However, despite impressive progress in Victoria and in many others parts of the world, adequate public health interventions in this area are still needed, together with further research to identify the most effective intervention of this type. In our view, and in line with the suggestions of experts, greater efforts should be devoted to modifying the factors that shape our physical and social environment by means of: (i) working with parents, so that they refrain from making comments that contribute to body dissatisfaction and disordered eating behaviours and promote healthy norms with regard to eating, weight, body shape and how to deal adequately with stress; (ii) working with groups of peers to promote healthy norms with regard to weight-related teasing; (iii) educating teachers in relation to prejudices about weight and ED so as to facilitate changes in the school environment and promote healthy norms on eating and physical activity, as well as acceptance and tolerance of different body shapes and individual differences; (iv) training health professionals to take into account shared risk factors for obesity, eating disturbances and ED, so that they are able to correctly handle different types of problems while avoiding possibly affecting the development of problematic aspects; (v) working with the fashion industry, journalists, politicians and public health professionals to convince them to neither promote nor reinforce messages in favour of commercial diets, the objectification of women, extreme thinness in girls or extremely muscular bodies in boys; and (vi) engaging governments in multilevel public policy initiatives to prevent body image problems and ED⁽Reference Neumark-Sztainer^41, Reference Neumark-Sztainer, Levine and Paxton^57, Reference O'Dea^103, Reference Piran^104, Reference Paxton^109, Reference Levine and Smolak^116–Reference O'Dea¹¹⁹⁾.

Environmental approaches in the prevention of obesity

In order to reduce the burden associated with obesity, there have been calls for a change from the traditional focus on personal responsibility to new public policy actions⁽Reference Schwartz and Brownell^56, Reference Brownell, Kersh and Ludwig^120, Reference McKinnon, Orleans and Kumanyika¹²¹⁾. Attention is being directed towards modification of the physical and social environments in order to make our environments less obesogenic⁽Reference Schwartz and Brownell^56, Reference Brownell, Kersh and Ludwig^120–Reference Lake and Townshend¹²²⁾. Of note, whereas environmental factors that are being addressed within the ED field tend to relate more to the social environment, within the obesity prevention field attention has been directed towards both the social and physical environments in which we live. Although not yet evidence-based, the American Dietetic Association (ADA) states that community-based and environmental interventions are recommended as among the most feasible ways to support healthful lifestyles for the greatest numbers of children and their families⁽Reference Ritchie, Crawford and Hoelscher¹²³⁾. In addition to educating children about healthy eating and physical activity, it is important to provide families with opportunities to be physically active, live in communities that provide safe spaces for physical activities, and have access to a variety of affordable healthy foods^(124, Reference Sallis and Glanz¹²⁵⁾. A recent editorial in the New England Journal of Medicine echoed this idea⁽Reference Katan¹²⁶⁾, highlighting the failure of weight-loss diets in the prevention and treatment of obesity and insisting on the need to seek alternatives based on community prevention and the environmental approach.

Such an approach has been implemented successfully in France⁽Reference Romon, Lommez and Tafflet¹²⁷⁾. The French initiative began in 1992 as a school-based nutrition information programme in two towns in northern France (Fleurbaix and Laventie). From 2000 onwards the programme developed into a number of community-based interventions, so that the evolution of child overweight and obesity prevalence could be assessed over 12 years. In 2004, the same assessments were conducted in two comparison towns (Bois-Grenier and Violaines) with similar socio-economic characteristics but no intervention. All children aged 5–12 years in the populations of both intervention towns (633 at the last measurement in 2004) were assessed. Screenings took place to detect families at risk for obesity. These high-risk families met with a dietitian who provided advice on healthy eating and physical activity and referred them to a general practitioner in cases of identified health problems. Dietitians were also employed to carry out interventions in schools and in various other community settings. Additionally, the town councils supported actions to encourage physical activity, new sporting facilities were built, sports educators were employed to promote physical activity in primary school, walking-to-school days and family activities were organized, and several local stakeholders set up family activities focused on a ‘healthy lifestyle’. There was considerable local and national media interest in the programme during the study period. Twelve years after the start of the programme the prevalence of child overweight had not increased, and stood at 8·8 %, while in the comparison towns the prevalence had doubled over the same period, standing at 17·8 % and in line with the trend throughout the country.

This community approach was launched in 2004 in another ten cities from different French regions under the title of EPODE (‘Ensemble, prévenons l'obésité des enfants’ – ‘Together, let's prevent childhood obesity’; http://www.epode.fr), and is currently in progress in more than a hundred French communities. The EPODE project has the support of the government and the private sector, and indeed British authorities are considering similar initiatives⁽Reference Westley¹²⁸⁾. The EPODE European Network (EEN; http://www.epode-european-network.com) was recently set up, its aim being to help facilitate the implementation of community-based initiatives using the EPODE methodology in other European countries. The EEN is a European project running from 2008 to 2011 with the support of the European Commission DG for Health and Consumers. Current participants include France, Belgium through the ‘Viasano’ programme, Spain through the ‘THAO-Childhood Health’ initiative, and Greece through the ‘Paideiatrofi’ programme. By way of example, we now describe the principal characteristics of the THAO-Childhood Health programme, developed and adapted for implementation in Spain with the EPODE methodology. This programme is characterized by a specific gastronomic context (‘Mediterranean diet’, with considerable regional variation), a social context (Mediterranean lifestyle, based on emotional and social elements), a cultural context (strong cultural diversity with four official languages) and a political context (one national government and seventeen regional governments). The objectives are to encourage positive attitudes and behaviours of children (aged 0–12 years) and families, with a view to favouring healthier lifestyles with more physical activity and healthy/pleasant diet. The intervention consists of a planned programme of continual and coordinated actions on a long-term basis, is developed at the town level with involvement of all stakeholders, includes annual monitoring and evaluation, and is receiving consistent and extensive media coverage. It was launched in 2007 in five pilot cities. In the most recent phase, 2009–2010, there are forty-two participating cities, ten regions, and a total of 2 593 000 inhabitants and 302 500 children. Evaluation is currently under way.

With a similar environmental-based approach, the Spanish Ministry of Health, jointly with the Spanish Agency for Food Safety and Nutrition, launched a multi-faceted strategy for nutrition, physical activity and the prevention of obesity (NAOS) in 2005^(26, Reference Aranceta, Perez-Rodrigo and Serra-Majem¹²⁹⁾. This strategy focuses on the promotion of healthy eating and physical activity in collaboration with health professionals, municipalities and regional authorities, families, and the educational and business sectors. It includes a range of actions aimed at the early detection of obesity, the development of follow-up programmes, the stimulation of research on obesity, epidemiological control (through the Observatory of Obesity) and a plan of action for prevention, a part of which is the PERSEO Program⁽Reference Aranceta, Perez-Rodrigo and Serra-Majem¹²⁹⁾, a school-based initiative for promoting healthy eating and physical activity habits for combating obesity. This programme consists of simple interventions in primary schools to promote healthy eating and exercise behaviours in pupils; the objective being to involve the family and school environment in the promotion of the best healthy options. Participants were pupils aged 6–10 years from sixty-seven schools in six Spanish regions. In all, nearly 13 000 pupils took part, from thirty-four schools in the intervention condition and thirty-three schools in the control condition. The first results are expected to be made public shortly.

These environmental initiatives are relevant, and represent a significant advance in public policy actions in the obesity prevention field. However, we should point out that, as far as we know, little or no attention has been directed towards body image, excessive weight concerns, unhealthy weight-control behaviours and other variables relevant to an integrated approach to prevention, in either the intervention or the assessment protocols.

Prevention programmes utilizing an integrated preventive approach

Recent years have seen the development of preventive programmes addressing, in joint fashion, a broad spectrum of eating- and weight-related problems⁽Reference Austin, Field and Wiecha^76, Reference Stock, Miranda and Evans^84–Reference Neumark-Sztainer, Butler and Palti^86, Reference Neumark-Sztainer, Story and Hannan¹³²⁾, which reflect significant progress on the path towards integrated prevention. Some are obesity prevention programmes, which have evaluated the effects of intervention on disordered eating. A notable example is Planet Health, an obesity prevention programme, which had previously shown itself to be effective in reducing obesity prevalence in girls⁽Reference Gortmaker, Peterson and Wiecha⁸⁹⁾. Subsequent analyses of the efficacy of the preventive intervention in a randomized controlled trial conducted in middle-school students showed that the intervention had an unanticipated but beneficial effect in reducing the risk of disordered weight-control behaviours after two years in intervention schools, compared with control schools⁽Reference Austin, Field and Wiecha⁷⁶⁾. The latest study to date (‘5-2-1 Go!’) has a larger sample, data for boys, new content, and the specific goal of determining the effect of a school-based intervention for promoting healthful nutrition and physical activity on disordered weight-control behaviours. That study, which includes 1451 early adolescent girls and boys, supports the effectiveness of the intervention to prevent disordered weight-control behaviours in early-adolescent girls, though no intervention effect was observed in boys⁽Reference Austin, Kim and Wiecha¹³³⁾. According to its authors, it may be that the programme findings on disordered weight-control behaviours were achieved through a reduction in unhealthful weight concerns and body dissatisfaction, but further research will be needed to identify the mechanism of the observed protective effect.

Additionally, there have been a few initiatives aimed primarily at the prevention of one problem (obesity or ED) that have addressed risk factors or variables of interest for integrated prevention. Among these is a randomized controlled trial that evaluated a programme aimed at the prevention of ED⁽Reference Stice, Shaw and Burton⁷⁵⁾ involving dissonance-inducing activities to reduce thin-ideal internalization and a prevention programme promoting healthy weight management. The trial also included two control conditions, with female high-school and college students presenting moderate body dissatisfaction. In the follow-up evaluation, the dissonance and healthy weight group participants showed significantly lower binge eating and obesity onset and less use of health services, including mental health services.

‘New Moves’ was funded primarily as an obesity prevention programme for sedentary adolescent girls, but was designed to prevent a broader spectrum of weight-related problems⁽Reference Neumark-Sztainer, Friend and Flattum¹³⁴⁾. The primary component of New Moves is an all-girls physical education class, supplemented with activities aimed at improving eating patterns without dieting and self-image. New Moves strives to provide an environment in which girls feel comfortable being physically active, regardless of their size, shape or skill level, and focuses on improving body image while increasing healthy eating and exercise behaviours. New Moves was evaluated in a randomized controlled trial; although the programme was not effective in decreasing BMI or percentage body fat, it did lead to improvements in attitudes and behaviours of relevance to both obesity and ED, including sedentary behaviours, unhealthy weight-control behaviours, body image and self-worth. The programme was very well accepted by the girls and continues to be implemented in most of the schools that participated in the study. Findings point to the challenges in developing interventions that can be effective in preventing a broad spectrum of weight-related problems and indicate a need for more work in this area.

Recently, programmes have begun to be designed which expressly address the integrated prevention of obesity and ED, as is the case of ‘Healthy Buddies’⁽Reference Stock, Miranda and Evans⁸⁴⁾. This programme is aimed at the promotion of healthy living and has three components: nutrition, physical activity and healthy body image. The first two are typical of obesity prevention programmes. On the other hand, the third component, healthy body image, includes activities related to self-esteem, healthy growth and development, social skills, and media literacy. The programme's slogan – ‘Go Move! Go Fuel! Go Feel Good!’ – sums up its content very well. Administered to pre-school children (aged 5–6 years) by older children (aged 9–13 years), the programme showed itself to be efficacious in health-promotion measures oriented to the prevention of obesity at the end of a school-year-long intervention. Unfortunately, no significant changes were observed in measures of risk factors for disordered eating, although the results could be explained by a possible floor effect (‘pre’ scores in these measures were very low in both the intervention and control groups). Currently, the same research team is assessing the larger-scale effects of the programme.

The inclusion of components aimed at promoting body acceptance and body size diversity or reducing unhealthy weight-control behaviours in programmes for the promotion of physical activity and healthy eating constitute an important advance on the path towards the integration of prevention efforts addressing the whole spectrum of eating- and weight-related problems.

Other developments towards integrated prevention

In spite of the difficulties already pointed out for achieving integration of efforts to prevent both obesity and ED, various initiatives have been launched in this direction recently. Thus, it is becoming increasingly common to find studies dealing with obesity-related matters in ED journals, and vice versa. The American Journal of Public Health recently published a commentary that labelled ED as a ‘blind spot’ in the drive for childhood obesity prevention and indicated that public health efforts to address obesity can no longer afford to ignore ED and related behaviours⁽Reference Austin¹³⁵⁾. The guidelines of the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence⁽⁹⁸⁾, which consider general issues related to work on the prevention or treatment of obesity, state clearly that ‘interventions to help children eat a healthy diet and be physically active should develop a positive body image and build self-esteem’ (p. 7). The US Department of Health and Human Services Office on Women's Health has drawn up a general interest document on the matter⁽⁴²⁾, while the American Psychological Association (APA) recently set up a website that includes relevant sources and information on the work of the APA in this area⁽¹³⁶⁾. APA, as part of its Public Interest policy, has also drawn up an interesting document⁽¹³⁷⁾ in which it declares its support for legislative initiatives in six areas: (i) improving nutrition and physical activity; (ii) increasing body satisfaction; (iii) decreasing weight stigmatization and weight-related teasing; (iv) promoting responsible marketing to children; (v) supporting healthy home environments; and (vi) addressing cultural and socio-economic factors related to obesity and disordered eating. Moreover, the document includes a list of specific recommendations for the development of federal policies with the aim of preventing obesity and disordered eating in young people through an integrated approach. Finally, in 2007 an interesting conference on this issue entitled ‘Obesity and Eating Disorders: Seeking Common Ground to Promote Health. A national meeting of researchers, practitioners, and policy makers’ took place in Calgary, Canada^{(138, 139)}.

In June 2010 in Salzburg, Austria, the 2010 International Conference on Eating Disorders was held, organized by the Academy for Eating Disorders. Part of the scientific programme was the Special Interest Group Discussion Panel ‘What do Transdisciplinary Approaches Bring to the Integrated Prevention of Obesity and Disordered Eating?’, that the authors of the present work attended, one of us as a panellist (G.L.-G.). The main points discussed, and on which conclusions were reached, were as follows. First, the lack of connections between the two fields is largely due to the types of professionals working in them, who see obesity and ED as separate problems. Those involved in obesity prevention tend to come from medical or public health backgrounds, while those working in the field of ED prevention tend to come from the mental health field. Few professionals have a background in both fields, and there is a need for much more communication between them. Second, some experts in ED are concerned about the fact that experts in obesity are unaware or show little interest in the potential negative repercussions of prevention with a strong weight focus (as opposed to a health focus) on the development of disordered eating. Third, a strategy for moving forward would be to make efforts to ensure that those working in each field have access to key information about the intersections between the two and the possible undesirable consequences of certain types of prevention aimed at one problem on the other.

New and existing programmes should take these conclusions into account. Given the broader scope of obesity interventions, a pragmatic approach would be to ensure that those planning large-scale obesity prevention programmes with community- and environmental-based approaches, which have substantial resources available and are already reaching out to broad sections of the population, have access to the relevant information on integrated approaches to prevention. In this way, they should be able to take into consideration the possibility of modifying their strategies or incorporating additional components and measurements that contribute to promoting a healthy and positive body image, accepting the diversity of body sizes, reducing weight- and appearance-related teasing, removing the stigma associated with obesity, and eradicating unhealthy weight-control behaviours.