Hostname: page-component-6bf8c574d5-8gtf8 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-02-20T13:32:25.844Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Efficacy and safety of ginseng

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 January 2007

DD Kitts  and
C Hu
DD Kitts*
Affiliation:
Food, Nutrition and Health, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, University of British Columbia, 6650 N.W. Marine Drive, Vancouver, B.C. V6T-1Z4, Canada
C Hu
Affiliation:
Food, Nutrition and Health, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, University of British Columbia, 6650 N.W. Marine Drive, Vancouver, B.C. V6T-1Z4, Canada
*
*Corresponding author: Email [email protected]
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

Ginseng (Panax ginseng, C.A. Meyer) has been a popular herbal remedy used in eastern Asian cultures for thousands of years. In North America, the ginseng species indigenous to both Canada and the United States (Panax quinquefolium) represents an important industry for both domestic and export markets. There are numerous theories and claims describing the efficacy of ginseng, which can combat stress, enhance both the central and immune systems and contribute towards maintaining optimal oxidative status against certain chronic disease states and aging. Risk issues concerning the safety of ginseng at recommended dosages are less prominent and scientifically based. While some epidemiological or clinical studies have reported indications of efficacy for specific health benefits or potential toxicity, there are an equal number of studies that provide contradictory evidence. This situation has led to questionable conclusions concerning specific health benefits or risks associated with ginseng. Recent advances in the development of standardized extracts for both Panax ginseng (G-115) and Panax quinquefolius (CNT-2000) have and will continue to assist in the assessment of efficacy and safety standards for ginseng products. This paper reviews the scientific literature and evidence for ginseng efficacy and safety derived mostly from in vitro and animal studies and places emphasis on the need for more randomized, double-blinded, placebo clinical studies that can provide unequivocal conclusions. An example of the efficacy and safety of ginseng is provided with the description of biological activity of a North American ginseng extract (NAGE), which includes illustrating mechanisms for antioxidant activity without prooxidant properties.

Keywords

GinsengSafetyEfficacyAntioxidant activity
Type
Research Article
Information
Public Health Nutrition , Volume 3 , Supplement 4a , December 2000 , pp. 473 - 485
Copyright
Copyright © CABI Publishing 2000

References

1Liu, CX, Xiao, PG. Recent advances on ginseng research in China. J. Ethnopharmacol. 1992; 36: 27–38.Google ScholarPubMed
2Gillis, CN. Panax ginseng pharmacology: A nitric acid link? Biochem. Pharmacol. 1997; 54: 1–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
3Attele, AS, Wu, JA, Yuan, CS. Ginseng pharmacology. Biochem. Pharmacol. 1999; 58: 1685–93.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
4Vogler, BK, Hittler, MH, Ernst, E.The efficacy of ginseng. A systematic review of randomised clinical trials. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 1999; 55: 567–75.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
5Lee, YS, Chung, IS, Lee, IR, Kim, KH, Hong, WS, Yun, YS. Activation of multiple effector pathways of immune system by the antineoplastic immunostimulator acid polysaccharide ginsan, isolated from Panax ginseng. Anticancer Res. 1997; 17: 323–31.Google Scholar
6Kim, K, Lee, YS, Jung, IS, et al. Acidic polysaccharide from Panax ginseng, ginsan, induces TH-1 cell and macrophage cytokines and generates LAK cells in synergy with IL-2. Planta Med. 1998; 64: 110–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
7Ma, YC, Zhu, J, Luo, L, et al. . A comparative evaluation of ginsenosides in commercial ginseng products and tissue culture samples using HPLC. J. Herb Spices Med. Plants 1995; 3, 41–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
8Li, TSC, Mazza, G, Cottrell, AC, Gao, L.Ginsenosides in roots and leaves of American ginseng. J. Agric. Food Chem. 1996; 44: 717–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
9Yuan, C-S, Wu, JA, Lowell, T, Gu, M.Gut and brain effects of American ginseng root on brainstem neuronal activities in rats. Am. J. Chin. Med. 1998; 26: 47–55.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
10Mizuno, M, Yamada, J, Terai, H, Kozukue, N, Lee, YS, Tsuchida, H.Differences in immunomodulating effects between wild and cultured Panax ginseng. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 1994; 200: 1672–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
11Marasco, C, Vargas Ruiz, R, Salas Villagomez, A, Begona Infante, C.Double blind study of a multivitamin complex supplemented with ginseng extract. Drugs Exp. Clin. Res. 1998; 22: 323–9.Google Scholar
12Zuin, M, Attezzati, ZM, Camisasca, M, Riebenfield, D, Podda, M.Effects of a preparation containing a standardized ginseng extract combined with trace elements and multi-vitamins against hepatotoxin-induced chronic liver disease in the elderly. J. Int. Med. Res. 1987; 15: 276–81.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
13Takino, Y, Odani, T, Hisayuki, T, Hayashi, T.Studies on the absorption, distribution, excretion and metabolism of ginseng saponins. I. Quantitative analysis of ginsenoside Rg1 in rats. Chem. Pharm. Bull. 1982; 30: 2196–210.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
14Kajiwara, H, Hewmming, AM, Hirano, H.Evidence of metal binding activities of pentadecapeptid from Panax ginseng. J. Chromatogr. 1996; 687: 443–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
15Hasegawa, H, Sung, J-H, Benno, Y.Role of human intestinal prevotella oris in hydrolyzing ginseng saponins. Planta Med. 1997; 63: 436–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
16Lee, BH, Lee, SJ, Hui, JH, Lee, S, Huh, JD, Moon, CK. In vitro antigenotoxic activity of novel ginseng saponin metabolites formed by intestinal bacteria. Planta Med. 1998; 64: 500–3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
17Brekham, II, Dardymov, IV. New substances of plant origin, which increase non-specific resistance. Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. 1969; 9: 419–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
18Pieralisi, G, Ripari, P, Vecchiet, L.Effects of standardized ginseng extract combined with dimethylaminoethanol bitartrate, vitamins, minerals and trace elements on physical performance during exercise. Clin. Ther. 1991; 13: 373–82.Google ScholarPubMed
19Brahrke, MS, Morgan, WP. Evaluation of the ergogenic properties of ginseng. Sports Med. 1984; 18: 229–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
20Hassan-Samira, MM, Attia Attia, M, Allam, M, Elwan, O.Effect of the standardized ginseng extract G115 on the metabolism and electrical activity of the rabbit's brain. J. Int. Med. Res. 1985; 13: 342–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
21Kirchdorfer, AM. Clinical trials with the standardized ginseno-side concentrate G115. In: Chang, HN, Yeung, HW, Tso, WW, Koo, A, eds. Advances in Chinese Medicinal Materials Research. Singapore: World Scientific Publishers, 1985: 529–42.Google Scholar
22Wang, L, Lee, T.Effect of ginseng saponins on exercise performance in non-trained rats. Planta Med. 1998; 64: 130–3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
23Cherdrungsi, P, Rungroeng, D.The effects of standardized extract and exercise training on aerobic and anaerobic exercise capacities in humans. Korean J. Ginseng Sci. 1995; 19: 93–100.Google Scholar
24Engels, HJ, Said, JM, Wirth, JC. Failure of chronic ginseng supplementation to affect work performance and energy metabolism in healthy adult females. Nutr. Res. 1996; 16: 1295–1305.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
25Morris, AC, Jacobs, I, McLellan, TM, Klugerman, A, Wanga, LCH, Zamecnik, J.No ergogenic effect of ingestion. Int. J. Sport Nutr. 1996; 6: 263–71.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
26Herman, J, Engels, HJ, Wirth, J.No ergogenic effects of ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer) during graded maximal exercise aerobic exercise. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 1997; 97: 1110–15.Google Scholar
27Fulder, SJ. Ginseng and the hypothalamic-pituitary control of stress. Am. J. Chin. Med. 1981; 9: 112–18.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
28Hiai, S, Yokoyama, H, Oura, H, Kawashima, Y.Evaluation of corticosterone-secretion-inducing activities of ginsenosides and their prosapogenins and sapogenins. Chem. Pharm. Bull. 1983; 31: 168–74.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
29Lee, YJE, Chung, K, Lee, YH, Lee, B, Huh, B, Lee, SK. Ginsenoside-Rg1, one of the major active molecules from Panax ginseng, is a functional ligand of glucocorticoid receptor. Mol. Cell. Endocrinol. 1997; 113: 135–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
30Hiai, S, Yokoyama, H, Oura, H.Features of ginseng saponin induced corticosterone release. Endocrinol. Jpn. 1979; 26: 737–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
31Waki, I, Kyo, H, Yasuda, M, Kimura, M.Effects of hypoglycemic component of ginseng radix on insulin biosynthesis in normal and diabetic animals. J. Pharmacobio-dynamics. 1982; 5: 547–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
32Sotaniemi, EA, Haapakoski, E, Rautio, A.Ginseng therapy in non-insulin dependent diabetic patients. Diabetes Care 1995; 18, 1373–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
33Yuan, YV, Kitts, DD. Endogenous antioxidants. Role of antioxidant enzymes in biological systems. In: Shahidi, F, ed. Natural Antioxidants: Chemistry, Health Effects and Applications. Champaign, IL: AOCS Press, 1996: 258–70.Google Scholar
34Deng, HL, Zhang, JT. Anti-lipid peroxidative effect of ginsenoside Rb1 and Rg1. Chin. Med. J. 1991; 104: 395–8.Google ScholarPubMed
35Rimar, S, Lee-Mengel, M, Gillis, CN. Pulmonary protective vasodilating effects of a standardized Panax ginseng preparation following artificial gastric digestion. Pulm. Pharmacol. 1996; 9: 205–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
36Voces, J, Alvarez, AI, Vila, L, Ferrando, A, Cabral de Oliveria, C, Prieto, JG. Effects of administration of the standardized Panax ginseng extract G-115 on hepatic antioxidant function after exhaustive exercise. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 1999; 123: 175–84.Google Scholar
37Jeong, TC, Kim, HJ, Park, JI, et al. . Protective effects of red ginseng saponins against carbon tetrachloride-induced hepatotoxicity in Sprague-Dawley rats. Planta Med. 1997; 63: 136–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
38Li, Y, Zhao, XJ. Effects of panaxadiol saponins on the contents of serum enzymes, lipid peroxides and SOD in hemorrhagic shock dogs. Chin. J. Pathophysiol. 1989; 5: 539–44.Google Scholar
39Hui-Ling, D, Jun-Tian, Z.Anti-lipid peroxidative effect of ginsenoside Rb1 and Rg2. Chin. Med. J. 1991; 104: 395–8.Google Scholar
40Kim, YH, Park, KH, Rho, HM. Transcriptional activation of the Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase gene through the AP2 site by ginsenoside Rb2 extracted from a medicinal plant, Panax ginseng. J. Biol. Chem. 1996; 271: 24539–43.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
41Zhang, YG, Liu, TP. Protective effects of total saponins of Panax ginseng on ischemia-reperfusion injury in rat brains. Chin. J. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 1994; 8: 7–12.Google Scholar
42Chen, X, Gillis, CN. Effect of free radicals on pulmonary vascular response to acetylcholine. J. Appl. Physiol. 1991; 71: 821–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
43Kim, HY, Chen, X, Gillis, CN. Ginsenosides protect pulmonary vascular endothelium against free radical-induced injury. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 1992; 189: 670–6.Google ScholarPubMed
44Yuan, C-S, Attele, AS, Wu, JA, Lowell, TK, Gu, Z, Lin, Y.Panax quinquefolium L. inhibits thrombin-induced endothelin release in vitro. Am. J. Chin. Med. 1999; 27: 331–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
45Wink, DA, Hanbauer, I, Krishna, MC, DeGraft, W, Ganson, J, Mitchell, JB. Nitric oxide protects against cellular damage and cytotoxicity from reactive oxygen species. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1993; 90: 9813–17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
46Kang, SY, Schini-Kerth, VB, Kim, ND. Ginsenosides of the protopanaxatriol group causes endothelium-dependent relaxation in the rat aorta. Life Sci. 1995; 56: 1577–86.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
47Peng, CF, Li, YJ, Li, YJ, Deng, HW. Effects of ginsenosides on vasodilator nerve actions in the rat perfused mesentery are mediated by nitric oxide. J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 1995; 47: 614–17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
48Maffei-Facino, R, Carini, R, Aldini, G, Berti, F, Rossoni, G.Panax ginseng administration in the rat prevents myocardial ischemia-reperfusion damage induced by hyperbaric oxygen: evidence for an antioxidant intervention. Planta Med. 1999; 65: 614–19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
49Abuja, PM, Murkovic, M, Pfannhauser, W.Antioxidant and prooxidant activities of elderberry (Sambucus nigra) extract in low-density lipoprotein oxidation. J. Agric. Food Chem. 1998; 46: 4091–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
50Wang, H, Cao, G, Prior, RL. Oxygen radical absorbing capacity of anthocyanins. J. Agric. Food Chem. 1997; 45: 304–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
51Kitts, DD, Yuan, YV, Wijewickreme, AN, Thompson, LU. Antioxidant activity of the flaxseed lignan secoisolaiciresinol diglycoside and its mammalian lignan metabolites enterodiol and enterolactone. Mol. Cell. Biochem. 1999; 202: 91–100.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
52Hu, C, Kitts, DD. Studies on the antioxidant activity of echinacea root extract. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2000; 48: 466–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
53Zhang, D, Yasuda, Y, Yu, P.Ginseng extract scavenges hydroxyl radical and protects unsaturated fatty acids from decomposition caused by iron-mediated lipid peroxidation Free Radical. Biol. Med. 1996; 20: 145–50.Google Scholar
54Kitts, DD, Wijewickreme, AN, Hu, C.Antioxidant properties of a North American ginseng extract. Mol. Cell. Biochem. 2000; 203: 1–10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
55Huong, NTT, Matsumoto, K, Kasai, R, Yamosaka, K, Watanabe, H.In vitro antioxidant activity of vietnamese ginseng saponin and its components. Biol. Pharm. Bull. 1998; 21: 978–81.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
56Zhong, GG, Qi, H, Zhao, CY, Jiang, Y.Comparative observation on the influence of 11 ginsenoside monomers on the free radical contents of myocardiocytes with the electron spin resonance method Acta. Biochem. Biophys. Sin. 1993; 25: 667–71.Google Scholar
57Mei, B, Wang, YF, Wu, JX, Chen, WZ. Protective effects of ginsenosides on oxygen free radical induced damages of cultured vascular endothelial cells in vitro Acta. Pharm. Sin. 1994; 29: 801–8.Google Scholar
58Suh, DY, Han, YN, Han, BH. Malitol, an antioxidant component of Korean red ginseng shows little prooxidant activity. Arch. Pharm. Res. 1996; 19: 112–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
59Juurlink, BNJ. Management of oxidative stress in the CNS: The many roles of glutathione. Neurotoxicity Res. 1999; 1: 119–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
60Coteller, N, Bernier, JL, Henichart, JP, Catteau, JP, Gaydou, E, Wallet, JC. Scavenger and antioxidant properties of ten synthetic flavones Free Radical. Biol. Med. 1992; 13: 211–19.Google Scholar
61Ko, FN, Cheng, ZJ, Lin, CN, Teng, CM. Scavenger and antioxidant properties of prenylflavones isolated from Artocarpus heterophyllus Free Radical. Biol. Med. 1998; 25: 166–8.Google Scholar
62Hess, FG, Parent, RA, Stevens, KR, Cox, GE, Becci, PJ. Effect of subchronic feeding of ginseng extract G-115 in beagle dogs Food. Chem. Toxicol. 1983; 21: 95–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
63Siegel, RK. Ginseng abuse syndrome: Problems with the panacea. JAMA 1979; 241, 1614–15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
64The German Commission E Monographs. Translated into English: Blumenthal, M, Hall, T, Rister, R, eds. Klein, S, Rister, R, transl. Austin, TX: American Botanical Council, 1996.Google Scholar
65Klepser, TB, Klepser, ME. Unsafe herbal therapies. Am. J. Health System. Pharm. 1999; 56, 125.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
66Awang, DVC. Maternal use of ginseng and neonatal androgenization. [Letter, comment]. JAMA 1991; 265, 1828.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
67Palmer, BV, Montgomery, ACV, Monteiro, JCMP. Ginseng and mastalgia. BMJ 1978; 6122, 1284.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
68Jones, BD, Runkis, AM. Interaction of ginseng with phenelzine. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 1987; 7: 201–2.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
69Janetzky, K, Morreale, AP. Probable interactions between warfarin and ginseng. Am. J. Health Syst. Pharm. 1997; 54: 692–3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
70Awang, DVC. The anti-stress potential of North American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.). J. Herbs, Spices Med. Plants 1998; 62, 87–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
71Mahoney, JR, Graft, E.Role of alpha-tocopherol, ascorbic acid, citric acid and EDTA as oxidants in model systems. J. Food Sci. 1986; 51: 1293–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
72Aruoma, OI, Evans, PJ, Kaur, H, Sutcliffe, L, Halliwell, B.An evaluation of the antioxidant and potential prooxidant properties of food additives and trolox C, vitamin E and probucol. Free Radical Res. Commun. 1990; 10: 143–57.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
73Biaglow, JE, Manevich, Y, Uckin, F, Held, KD. Quantitation of hydroxyl radicals produced by radiation and copper-linked oxidation of ascorbate by 2-deoxy-D-ribose method. Free Radical Biol. Med. 1997; 22: 1129–38.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
74Laughton, ML, Halliwell, PL, Evans, PL, Hoult, JRS. Antioxidant and prooxidant actions of the plant phenolics, quercetin, gossypol and myricetin. Biochem. Pharmacol. 1989; 38: 2859–65.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
75Roedig-Penman, A, Gordon, MH. Antioxidant properties of catechins and green tea extracts in model food emulsions. J. Agric. Food Chem. 1997; 45: 4267–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
76Halliwell, B, Grootveld, M, Gutteridge, B.Methods for the measurement of hydroxyl radicals in biochemical systems. Deoxyribose degradation and aromatic hydroxylation. Methods Biochem. Anal. 1987; 33: 59–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
77Ueda, J, Saito, N, Shimazu, Y, Ozawa, T.A comparison of scavenging abilities of antioxidants against hydroxyl radicals. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 1996; 333: 377–84.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
78Cui, J, Garle, M, Bjorkhem, I, Eneroth, P.What do commercial ginseng preparations contain? Lancet 1994; 344, 134.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
79Choi, SW, Cho, EH, Chi, SY. 1995; Ginsenosides activate DNA polymerase from bovine placenta. Life Sci. 1994; 57: 1359–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
80Tachikawa, E, Kudo, K, Kashimoto, T.Ginseng saponins reduce acetylcholine-evoked Na+ influx and catecholamine secretion in bovine adrenal chromaffin cells. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 1995; 273: 629–36.Google ScholarPubMed
81See, DM, Broumand, N, Sahl, L, Tills, JG. In vitro effects of echinacea and ginseng on natural killer and antibody-dependent cell cytotoxicity in healthy subjects and chronic fatigue syndrome or acquired immunodeficient syndrome patients. Immunopharmacology 1997; 35, 229–35.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
82Kenarova, B, Neychev, H, Hadijiivariova, C, Petkov, VD. Immunomodulatory activity of ginsenoside Rg1 from Panax ginseng. Jpn. J. Pharmacol. 1990; 54: 447–54.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
83Ro, JY, Ahn, YS, Kim, KH. Inhibitory effect of ginsenoside on the mediator release of the guinea pig mast cells activated by specific antigen-antibody reactions. Int. J. Immunopharmacol. 1998; 20: 625–41.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
84Lui, J, Zhang, JT. Immunoregulatory effects of ginsenoside Rg1 in aged rats. Yao Hsueh Hsueh Pao-Acta Pharm. Sin. 1995; 30: 818–23.Google Scholar
85Lui, J, Wang, S, Liu, H, Yang, L, Nan, G.Stimulatory effect of saponin from Panax ginseng on immune function of lymphocytes in the elderly. Mech. Ageing Dev. 1995; 83: 43–53.Google Scholar
86Matsunaga, H, Katano, M, Yamamoto, H, Mori, M, Takata, K.Studies on the panaxatriol of Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer. Isolation, determination and antitumour activity. Chem. Pharm. Bull. 1989; 37: 1281–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
87Duda, RB, Zhong, Y, Navas, V, Li, MZC, Toy, BR, Alavarez, JG. American ginseng and breast cancer therapeutic agents synergistically inhibit MCF-7 breast cancer cell growth. J. Surg. Oncol. 1999; 72: 230–9.3.0.CO;2-2>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
88Tode, T, Kikuchi, Y, Kita, T, Hirata, J, Imaizumi, I, Nagata, I.Inhibitory effects by oral administration of ginsenoside Rh2 on the growth of human ovarian cancer cells in nude mice. J. Cancer Res. Clin. Oncol. 1993; 120: 24–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
89Zhu, JH, Takeshita, T, Kitagawa, I, Morimorto, K.Suppression of the formation of sister chromatid exchanges by low concentrations of ginsenoside Rh2 in human blood lymphocytes. Cancer. Res. 1995; 55: 1221–3.Google ScholarPubMed
90Wakabaayashi, C, Murakami, K, Hasegawa, H, Murata, J, Saiki, I.An intestinal bacterial metabolite of ginseng protopanaxadiol saponins has the ability to induce apoptosis in tumour cells. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 1998; 246: 725–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
91Oh, M, Choi, YH, Choi, SH. Antiproliferating effects of ginsenoside Rh2 on MCF-& human breast cancer cells. Int. J. Oncol. 1999; 14: 869–75.Google ScholarPubMed
92Kim, T-H, Lee, Y-S, Cho, C-K, Park, S, Choi, S-Y, Yoo, S-Y. Protective effect of ginseng on radiation-induced DNA double strand breaks and repair in murine lymphocytes. Cancer Biother. Radiopharm. 1996; 11: 267–72.Google ScholarPubMed
93Mochizuki, M, Yoo, YC, Maatsuzawa, K.Inhibitory effect of tumor metastasis in mice by saponins, ginsenoside-Rb2, 20(R)- and 20 (S)-ginsenoside-Rg3, of red ginseng. Biol. Pharm. Bull. 1995; 18: 1197–1202.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
94Yun, TK. Experimental and epidemiological evidence of the cancer-preventative effects of Panax ginseng. C.A. Meyer Nutr. Rev. 1996; 54, S71–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
95Yun, T-K, Choi, SY. Non-organ specific cancer prevention of ginseng: a prospective study in Korea. Int. J. Epidemiol. 1998; 27: 359–64.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
96Zhang, Y, Xu, XU, Jiang, YP. Effects of ginsenosides on myocardial ischemia/re-perfusion damage in open heart surgery patients. Med. J. China 1994; 74, 626–8.Google Scholar
97Lee, J-H, Park, H-J. Effects of lipophilic fraction from Korean red ginseng on platelet aggregation and blood coagulation in rats fed with corn oil and beef tallow diet. Korean J. Ginseng Sci. 1995; 19: 206–11.Google Scholar
98Chen, X.Cardiovascular protection by ginsenosides and their nitric oxide releasing action. Clin. Exp. Pharmacol. Physiol. 1996; 23: 728–32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
99Huang, YS. Effect of ginsenosides Rb1 and Rg1 on lipid peroxidation of rat in vitro. Chung Kuo I Shueh Ko Hsueh Yuan Hsueh Pao 1989; 11, 460–2.Google ScholarPubMed
100Kim, J-S, Kim, K-W, Choi, K-J. Screening of active components of red ginseng saponin Korean. J. Ginseng Sci. 1996; 20: 173–8.Google Scholar
101Chang, MS, Choi, KJ, Rho, HM. Effect of the contents of ratio of panaxadiol ginsenosides extracted from compartments of ginseng on the transcription of Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase gene. J. Ginseng Res. 1999; 23: 44–9.Google Scholar