Background. The temporal relationship between depression and adverse functional outcomes in older adults is ambiguous. In the present eight-wave prospective community-based study, the longitudinal effect of depression on functional limitations and disability (in terms of disability days and bed days) was studied, thereby taking into account the role of chronic physical diseases.

Methods. The study is based on a sample which at the outset consisted of 325 non-depressed and 327 depressed persons (55–85 years) drawn from a larger random community based sample in the Netherlands. Generalized estimating equations time-lag models were used to examine the longitudinal relation between depression and both functional limitations and disability.

Results. Functional limitations were very persistent over time, whereas disability days and bed days were more fluctuating functional outcomes. Only in the presence of chronic physical diseases, there was a significant longitudinal association between depression at the previous measurement and functional limitations, disability days and bed days at the next measurement. The effect on functional limitations was small, which was probably partly due to their persistent nature.

Conclusions. The finding of a longitudinal relationship between depression and functional outcomes in older adults with a compromised health status provides a rationale for treatment of chronic physical diseases as well as depression in depressed chronically ill elderly, in order to prevent a spiralling decline in psychological and physical health.

Background. Brief problem-solving therapy is regarded as a pragmatic treatment for deliberate self-harm (DSH) patients. A recent meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) evaluating this approach indicated a trend towards reduced repetition of DSH but the pooled odds ratio was not statistically significant. We have now examined other important outcomes using this procedure, namely depression, hopelessness and improvement in problems.

Method. Six trials in which problem-solving therapy was compared with control treatment were identified from an extensive literature review of RCTs of treatments for DSH patients. Data concerning depression, hopelessness and improvement in problems were extracted. Where relevant statistical data (e.g. standard deviations) were missing these were imputed using various statistical methods. Results were pooled using meta-analytical procedures.

Results. At follow-up, patients who were offered problem-solving therapy had significantly greater improvement in scores for depression (standardized mean difference =−0·36; 95% CI −0·61 to −0·11) and hopelessness (weighted mean difference =−3·2; 95% CI −4·0 to −2·41), and significantly more reported improvement in their problems (odds ratio = 2·31; 95% CI 1·29 to 4·13), than patients who were in the control treatment groups.

Conclusions. Problem-solving therapy for DSH patients appears to produce better results than control treatment with regard to improvement in depression, hopelessness and problems. It is desirable that this finding is confirmed in a large trial, which will also allow adequate testing of the impact of this treatment on repetition of DSH.

Background. Chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) has been associated with increased prolactin (PRL) responses to the serotonin (5-HT) releasing agent fenfluramine. It is not known whether this abnormality is due to increased 5-HT release or heightened sensitivity of post-synaptic 5-HT receptors.

Methods. We measured the increase in plasma PRL produced by the directly acting 5-HT receptor agonist, m-chlorophenylpiperazine (mCPP), in patients with CFS and healthy controls. We also compared the ability of mCPP to lower slow wave sleep (SWS) in the sleep polysomnogram of both subject groups. Finally, we measured plasma amino-acid levels to determine whether tryptophan availability differed between CFS subjects and controls.

Results. mCPP elevated plasma PRL equivalently in patients with CFS and controls. Similarly, the decrease in SWS produced by mCPP did not differ between the two subject groups. Plasma-free tryptophan was significantly decreased in CFS.

Conclusions. The sensitivity of post-synaptic 5-HT2c receptors is not increased in patients with CFS. This suggests that the increased PRL response to fenfluramine in CFS is due to elevated activity of pre-synaptic 5-HT neurones. This change is unlikely to be due to increased peripheral availability of tryptophan.

Background. Genetic effects upon behaviour are pervasive. To what extent are the many correlates of major depression (MD) due to individual-specific environmental experiences versus genetic factors correlated with risk for MD?

Methods. From a population-based twin registry, we identified 72 female monozygotic pairs discordant for a lifetime history of MD and compared the affected and unaffected members on a wide range of putative correlates of MD.

Results. The affected twin differed from her unaffected co-twin on many variables, eight of which were maximally discriminating: (i) maternal protectiveness; (ii) conflictual parent–child relationship; (iii) low optimism; (iv) current stressful life events; (v) financial difficulties and a history of (vi) phobia, (vii) nicotine dependence; and (viii) divorce. A cluster analysis suggested three ‘environmental pathways' to MD characterized by: (i) childhood vulnerability and anxiety; (ii) acting-out and demoralization; and (iii) interpersonal difficulties.

Conclusion. Important precursors and sequelae of MD originate in environmental experiences unique to the individual and are not mediated through genetic factors or family-of-origin effects. Such environmental factors cause pervasive differences in monozygotic twins discordant for MD, especially in the areas of interpersonal difficulties, psychopathology, social problems and self-concept. These findings should be interpreted in the context of possible retrospective recall bias and the difficulty of distinguishing risk factors from sequelae in co-twin–control studies.

Background. The risk for panic disorder (PD) is substantially increased in relatives of probands with PD. Prior literature provides only limited information about the degree to which this increase is due to genetic factors or family environment.

Methods. In personal interviews with both members of 3194 twin pairs, we assessed the lifetime history of lifetime panic attacks and PD. Twin resemblance was assessed by tetrachoric correlation and single and multiple threshold biometrical model fitting.

Results. As fully syndromal PD, by DSM-III-R criteria, was too rare to analyse usefully we examined four other dichotomous definitions of increasing stringency: panic probe and very broad, broad and intermediate PD. For all four definitions and for the multiple threshold analyses, the best-fit model indicated that twin resemblance was due solely to genetic factors with a moderate heritability (33–43%). For the broad and intermediate dichotomous definitions of PD, however, a model with twin resemblance due to familial–environmental factors fit nearly as well. No gender effects were seen on the genetic risk factors for these PD-like syndromes.

Conclusion. Even with large epidemiological samples of twins, studying disorders as uncommon as PD is problematical. Despite these difficulties, our results suggest that: (i) narrowly and broadly defined PD are probably on the same continuum of liability; (ii) twin resemblance for these PD-like syndromes is likely due largely to genetic factors with a moderate level of heritability although a contribution of familial–environmental factors cannot be excluded; and, (iii) the same familial risk factors impact, to a similar degree, on the liability to PD in males and females.

Background. This study set out to estimate the 12-month prevalence of DSM-III-R major depressive episode (MDE) and to analyse factors associating with psychosocial impairment, episode duration, phenomenology and symptom severity in a representative general population sample of adolescents (15–19-year-olds) and young adults (20–24-year-olds).

Method. The Finnish Health Care Survey '96 (FINHCS '96) was a cross-sectional nationwide epidemiological study. A random sample of 509 adolescents and 433 young adults was interviewed in 1996. MDE was assessed by University of Michigan Composite Diagnostic Interview Short-Form.

Results. The 12-month prevalence of MDE was 5·3% for adolescents (females 6·0%, males 4·4%) and 9·4% for young adults (females 10·7%, males 8·1%). When moderate psychosocial impairment was included in case definition, the prevalences were lowered by 20–25%. Increased impairment was associated with drunkenness at least twice a month, a higher mean number of depressive symptoms and impaired concentration. The median episode duration was 1 month. No factors associating with duration were found. With the exception of symptoms related to appetite being more common among females than males, the phenomenology of MDE was mainly independent of age and gender.

Conclusions. Episodes of major depression among adolescents and young adults in the general population are short but often associated with psychosocial impairment, especially if frequent drunkenness coexists.

Background. This study sought to determine if women are more likely than men to experience an episode of major depression in response to stressful life events.

Method. Sex differences in event-related risk for depression were examined by means of secondary analyses employing data from the Americans' Changing Lives study. The occurrence and time of occurrence of depression onset and instances of stressful life events within a 12-month period preceding a structured interview were documented in a community-based sample of 1024 men and 1800 women. Survival analytical techniques were used to examine sex differences in risk for depression associated with generic and specific stressful life events.

Results. Women were approximately three times more likely than men to experience major depression in response to any stressful life event. Women and men did not differ in risk for depression associated with the death of a spouse or child, events affecting their relationship to a spouse/partner (divorce and marital/love problems) or events corresponding to acute financial or legal difficulties. Women were at elevated risk for depression associated with more distant interpersonal losses (death of a close friend or relative) and other types of events (change of residence, physical attack, or life-threatening illness/injury).

Conclusion. Stressful life events overall, with some exceptions among specific event types, pose a greater risk for depression among women compared to men.

Background. We aimed to provide prevalence data on depression and other current mental disorders, impairment, need of psychiatric care and use of mental health services among young adults.

Methods. Based on a semi-structured clinical interview, current DSM-IV disorders, impairment, need of psychiatric care and use of mental health services were evaluated in a sample of 20–24-year-old young urban adults (N = 245), mean age 21·8, screened from a baseline population of 706. One-month prevalence estimates for disorders were calculated by the double sampling method, using various additional criteria to identify cases.

Results. One in four young adults (23·8%) suffered from a current mental disorder, the most prevalent being depressive (10·8%), anxiety (6·9%), substance use (6·2%) and personality disorders (6·0%). Prevalence estimates varied substantially according to the use of additional diagnostic criteria. Impairment (GAF < 61) together with DSM-IV symptom criteria produced an overall disorder prevalence of 10·3%, and 5·5% for depression. Prevalences were higher for females than males, except for alcohol abuse and personality disorders. Current co-morbidity was found in 39% of subjects with any disorder, and in more than half of those with depression. One-third of subjects with a current disorder reported an associated contact with psychiatric services and 16% had an ongoing contact.

Conclusions. Our findings support the use of additional criteria to produce clinically relevant prevalence data. Co-morbidity should receive special attention due to its amplification of both need for psychiatric care and severity of impairment. Finally, our results show disturbed young adults to be severely undertreated.

Background. Relatively little is known regarding stability or change over time in milder psychiatric disorder identified in epidemiological studies.

Methods. Data were analysed on 2890 subjects from the 1946 British birth cohort study. Psychiatric disorder was identified at age 36 years using the Present State Examination Index of Definition and 7 years later at age 43 using a symptom scale, employing a threshold to give identical 6% prevalence of disorder. Predictors were derived from recent social data and information collected earlier in childhood and younger adulthood.

Results. Over 7 years, there was considerable movement between case and non-case status. Only 1·7% of the sample satisfied case criteria at both points. Approximately two-thirds of cases at age 36 had fallen below case levels at age 43 and two-thirds of cases at age 43 were new cases. Most onsets and remissions were between definite case and non-case levels, rather than around the threshold. The strongest predictors of onset and remission were recent demographic, social and life stress variables, and earlier reported nervous disorder, with contributions from parental social background, and life history variables in adolescence.

Conclusions. There is considerable change over 7 years in milder psychiatric disorder, with around two-thirds of it episodic or fluctuating and one-third chronic. Recent social variables are strong predictors of change or chronicity, with some lasting contributions from childhood social setting and earlier life history.

Background. A number of studies have suggested that indirect semantic priming is enhanced in thought-disordered schizophrenics. However, research on direct semantic priming has produced conflicting results. The aim of the present study was to resolve some of the ambiguities of previous findings.

Methods. For the present study, 44 schizophrenic patients were split according to the presence of associative loosening into a positive thought-disordered (TD) and non-positive thought-disordered (NTD) group. Thirty healthy subjects and 36 psychiatric patients served as controls.

Results. Schizophrenics displayed increased indirect semantic priming compared with psychiatric controls. When subtyping the sample, TD-patients exhibited significantly enhanced indirect semantic priming compared with healthy and psychiatric controls as well as NTD-patients. Overall slowing was found to be independent of priming effects. Medication, age and chronicity of the schizophrenic illness did not modulate priming.

Conclusions. In line with Spitzer and Maher it is inferred that disinhibited semantic networks underlie formal thought disorder in schizophrenia. For future research, it would be appropriate to: employ indirect semantic priming rather than direct semantic priming conditions; and, pay more attention to potential moderators of the priming effect, most importantly, the prime display duration and the length of the stimulus onset asynchrony.

Background. While there is a growing body of epidemiological evidence on the prevalence of mental illnesses in late-life in developing countries, there is limited data on cultural perceptions of mental illnesses and care arrangement for older people.

Method. This qualitative study used focus group discussions with older people and key informants to investigate the status of older people and concepts of late-life mental health conditions, particularly dementia and depression, in Goa, India.

Results. Vignettes of depression and dementia were widely recognized. However, neither condition was thought to constitute a health condition. Dementia was construed as a normal part of ageing and was not perceived as requiring medical care. Thus, primary health physicians rarely saw this condition in their clinical work, but community health workers frequently recognized individuals with dementia. Depression was a common presentation in primary care, but infrequently diagnosed. Both late-life mental disorders were attributed to abuse, neglect, or lack of love on the part of children towards a parent. There was evidence that the system of family care and support for older persons was less reliable than has been claimed. Care was often conditional upon the child's expectation of inheriting the parent's property. Care for those with dependency needs was almost entirely family-based with little or no formal services. Unsurprisingly, fear for the future, and in particular ‘dependency anxiety’ was commonplace among older Goans.

Conclusions. There is a need to raise awareness about mental disorders in late-life in the community and among health professionals, and to improve access to appropriate health care for the elderly with mental illness. The study suggests directions for the future development of locally appropriate support services, such as involving the comprehensive network of community health workers.

Background. Several case reports and reviews have suggested an increased incidence of schizophrenia or bipolar disorder among persons with sex chromosome aneuploidies, but this observation may have been caused by biased sampling.

Methods. The 1122 individuals with sex chromosome aneuploidies registered in the Danish Cytogenetic Central Register were screened in the Danish Psychiatric Central Register for admissions with schizophrenia or bipolar affective disorder. Both registers are population based and have existed since 1968 and 1969 respectively. Relative risks were calculated for schizophrenia, bipolar affective disorder and either schizophrenia or bipolar disorder combined as one phenotype. Since hospitalization for a psychiatric disorder increases the probability that a cytogenetic examination is performed, the relative risks could be inflated, and they were therefore adjusted accordingly.

Results. Aneuploidies of the X or Y chromosomes were not associated with an increased risk of schizophrenia or bipolar disorder. The occurrence of the combined phenotype including both schizophrenia and bipolar disorder was significantly reduced among persons with Turner's syndrome and significantly increased among individuals with the 47, XYY karyotype.

Conclusions. This population-based study did not find evidence supporting the presence of risk alleles for schizophrenia or bipolar disorder on the X chromosome or the pseudoautosomal region on the Y chromosome. The findings of an increased risk for the combined phenotype to XYY males and the reduced risk for persons with Turner's syndrome are interesting but difficult to explain with present neurobiological knowledge and inconsistent with the other findings of the study.

Background. Subjective memory impairment (SMI) is common in older populations but its aetiology and clinical significance is uncertain. Depression has been reported to be strongly associated with SMI. Associations with objective cognitive impairment are less clear cut. Other factors suggested to be associated with SMI include poor physical health and the apolipoprotein E (APOE) ε4 allele. Studies of SMI have been predominantly confined to white Caucasian populations.

Method. A community study was carried out in a UK African-Caribbean population aged 55–75, sampled from primary care lists. Twenty-three per cent were classified with SMI. Depression was defined using the 10-item Geriatric Depression Scale. Other aetiological factors investigated were education, objective cognitive function, APOE genotype, disablement and vascular disease/risk. The principal analysis was restricted to 243 participants scoring > 20 on the Mini-Mental State Examination (85%). A second analysis included all 290 participants.

Results. Depression, self-reported physical impairment and APOE ε4 were associated with SMI. The association between SMI and physical impairment was not explained by depression, vascular disease/risk, or disability/handicap. The association between ε4 and SMI increased as MMSE scores decreased and was particularly strong in those with depression. The ε4 allele was present in 69% (95% CI 41–89%) of those with depression and SMI compared with 28% (20–36%) of those with neither.

Conclusions. Depression may not be a sufficient explanation for subjective memory complaints. Memory complaints in the presence of depression are associated with high prevalence of ε4 and therefore, presumably, a raised risk of subsequent dementia.

Background. In psychiatric surveys of the general population, there has been considerable discrepancy between diagnoses obtained by fully structured interviews and those established by systematic semi-structured clinical evaluation. The Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI) is an example of the first type of interview widely used in general population surveys. We compared its performance in diagnosing current depressive and anxiety disorders with the Schedules for Clinical Assessment in Neuropsychiatry (SCAN), a semi-structured diagnostic interview administered by clinically trained interviewers.

Methods. Household addresses in Leicestershire, UK, were randomly sampled and 860 adults were screened with the Revised Clinical Interview Schedule. Adults with too few symptoms to fulfil diagnostic criteria for study disorders were excluded to increase the proportion re-interviewed who met such criteria. Repeat diagnostic interviews with the CIDI and SCAN, ordered randomly, were sought from eligible screen positive respondents. Recalibrated CIDI prevalence estimates were derived from the SCAN classification using Bayesian statistics.

Results. Concordance ranged between ‘poor’ and ‘fair’ across almost all types of study disorders, and for co-morbidity. Concordance was somewhat better for severity of depression and when lower diagnostic thresholds were used for depression. Interview order effects were suggested with lower concordance when CIDI followed SCAN. Recalibration reduced the prevalence of depressive or anxiety disorder from 9·0 to 6·2%.

Conclusions. Community psychiatric surveys using structured diagnostic interview data must be interpreted cautiously. They should include an element of clinical re-appraisal so findings can be adjusted for estimation differences between fully structured and clinical assessments.

Background. Previous field studies have indicated that children's cognitive performance is impaired by chronic aircraft noise exposure. However, these studies have not been of sufficient size to account adequately for the role of confounding factors. The objective of this study was to test whether cognitive impairments and stress responses (catecholamines, cortisol and perceived stress) are attributable to aircraft noise exposure after adjustment for school and individual level confounding factors and to examine whether children exposed to high levels of social disadvantage are at greater risk of noise effects.

Methods. The cognitive performance and health of 451 children aged 8–11 years, attending 10 schools in high aircraft noise areas (16 h outdoor Leq > 63 dBA) was compared with children attending 10 matched control schools exposed to lower levels of aircraft noise (16 h outdoor Leq < 57 dBA).

Results. Noise exposure was associated with impaired reading on difficult items and raised annoyance, after adjustment for age, main language spoken and household deprivation. There was no variation in the size of the noise effects in vulnerable subgroups of children. High levels of noise exposure were not associated with impairments in mean reading score, memory and attention or stress responses. Aircraft noise was weakly associated with hyperactivity and psychological morbidity.

Conclusions. Chronic noise exposure is associated with raised noise annoyance in children. The cognitive results indicate that chronic aircraft noise exposure does not always lead to generalized cognitive effects but, rather, more selective cognitive impairments on difficult cognitive tests in children.

Background. Hospital-based studies report that depression in the elderly is associated with brain atrophy. This notion could not be confirmed in a population study on 85-year-olds. We aimed to assess depression in relation to brain atrophy and cognition in 70- and 74-year-old women.

Methods. A representative sample of 70- and 74-year-old women (N = 501) was examined with a psychiatric examination including the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE), measuring global cognitive function, and computerized tomography (CT) of the brain (N = 268). Depression was diagnosed according to DSM-III-R. Previous depression was diagnosed by history and by information from previous examinations in this 24-year longitudinal study.

Results. The prevalence of depression was 11·6%, including 8·4% with major depression (MDD). Among those who were currently mentally healthy, 43·0% had a history of previous depression. Women with current MDD had lower scores on the MMSE than the mentally healthy women. This association was only found in women with a lower level of education. Current depressives, previous depressives and mentally healthy women without a history of depression did not differ on CT with regard to brain atrophy or white matter lesions. The association between MDD and lower cognitive performance was independent of the association of cognitive performance with structural brain changes on CT.

Conclusions. Brain atrophy on CT is not associated with depression in the general population, despite the fact that individuals with depression have a worse cognitive performance. The finding that cognitive performance was not decreased in individuals with previous depression suggests that cognitive dysfunction is a state phenomenon in depression.

Background. Utilizing a prospectively designed community sample, we set out to estimate the rate of newly-incident suicidal ideation and attempts (non-fatal suicide behaviour) in a community sample, to evaluate antecedent sociodemographic characteristics and psychiatric disorders, and to assess use of mental health services in relation to non-fatal suicide behaviour.

Method. Prospectively-gathered data was utilized from 3481 continuing participants in the 13-year follow-up of the Baltimore sample of the NIMH Epidemiologic Catchment Area survey interviewed in 1981, 1982 and 1993/6.

Results. The incidence of suicide attempts was estimated at 148·8 per 100000 person-years and ideation at 419·9 per 100000 person-years. Persons in the youngest age group, in the lowest socio-economic status, and previously married persons were at increased risk for non-fatal suicide behaviour during the follow-up interval. Persons who reported suicidal ideation at baseline were more likely to report having attempted suicide at follow-up (RR = 6·09, 95% CI 2·58–14·36). Psychiatric disorders, especially depression and substance abuse, were associated with new-onset of non-fatal suicidal behaviour. While persons who reported newly-incident suicidal behaviour were more likely to report use of mental health services, few said that suicidal ideation or attempts were the reason for the visits.

Conclusions. Suicidal ideation is a common and important antecedent to suicide attempts and deserves more attention in community and general medical settings.

Background. Head injury has been reported to increase the likelihood of the development of schizophrenia-like psychosis (SLP), but its features and risk factors have been insufficiently investigated.

Method. Between 1987 and 1997, we examined 45 referred patients with SLP following brain trauma. These subjects were matched with 45 head-injured subjects without SLP on age (current and at injury) and gender, and their case records reviewed systematically. The groups were compared and logistic regression analyses performed.

Results.The psychoses had a mean age of onset of 26·3 years, a mean latency of 54·7 months after head injury, usually a gradual onset and a subacute or chronic course. Prodromal symptoms were common and depression often present at onset. Paranoid delusions and auditory hallucinations were the predominant features, with formal thought disorder, catatonic features and negative symptoms being uncommon. The SLP group had more widespread brain damage on neuroimaging, especially in the left temporal and right parietal regions, and were more impaired cognitively. Fewer (non-significantly) SLP subjects had epilepsy which was more likely to be well-controlled in this group. On regression analysis, a positive family history of psychosis and duration of loss of consciousness were the best predictors of SLP.

Conclusions. Head injury-related psychosis is usually paranoid-hallucinatory and subacute or chronic in its presentation. A genetic predisposition to schizophrenia and severity of injury with significant brain damage and cognitive impairment may be vulnerability factors.

Background. Although women are at consistently greater risk for major depression (MD) than men, it is unclear whether sex modifies the aetiological impact of genetic factors on MD. Is the heritability of MD different in men and women? Do the same genetic risk factors predispose to MD in the two sexes?

Methods. We obtained a lifetime history of MD by personal interview on two occasions from 6672 individual twins and 2974 complete twin pairs. Three diagnostic criteria of increasing narrowness were employed: DSM-III-R, DSM-III-R plus impairment and Washington University. To increase power by controlling for unreliability of assessment, we evaluated sex differences on genetic risk for MD using a structural equation measurement model.

Results. Using DSM-III-R criteria, but not the two narrower definitions, heritability of MD was significantly greater in women than in men. In the three diagnostic systems, the genetic correlation in liability to MD in men and women was estimated at between +0·50 and +0·65. These estimates differed significantly from unity for the two broader definitions.

Conclusion. Using broad but not narrower definitions of illness, genetic factors play a greater role in the aetiology of MD in women than in men. The genes that influence risk for MD in the two sexes are correlated but are probably not entirely the same. These results raise the possibility that, in linkage and association studies, the impact of some loci on risk for MD will differ in men and women.

Background. The protective effects of religion against late life depression may depend on the broader sociocultural environment. This paper examines whether the prevailing religious climate is related to cross-cultural differences of depression in elderly Europeans.

Methods. Two approaches were employed, using data from the EURODEP collaboration. First, associations were studied between church-attendance, religious denomination and depression at the syndrome level for six EURODEP study centres (five countries, N = 8398). Secondly, ecological associations were computed by multi-level analysis between national estimates of religious climate, derived from the European Value Survey and depressive symptoms, for the pooled dataset of 13 EURODEP study centres (11 countries, N = 17739).

Results. In the first study, depression rates were lower among regular church-attenders, most prominently among Roman Catholics. In the second study, fewer depressive symptoms were found among the female elderly in countries, generally Roman Catholic, with high rates of regular church-attendance. Higher levels of depressive symptoms were found among the male elderly in Protestant countries.

Conclusions. Religious practice is associated with less depression in elderly Europeans, both on the individual and the national level. Religious practice, especially when it is embedded within a traditional value-orientation, may facilitate coping with adversity in later life.