Excluding brewing and distilling, the food and beverages sector of the Scottish economy is estimated to employ about one in six of the manufacturing workforce and has a gross added value of just over £1000m per annum. These industries also have a strong link with suppliers of machinery and packaging equipment within the local economy, and of course with Scottish agriculture which provides an important part of the raw material used. On the conservative assumption that Scotland is responsible for about 10% of the U.K. exports of unprocessed and processed foods, which total just short of £3000m per annum and that exports depend on high quality standards in choice of raw material for processing, Scotland should be uniquely placed to contribute to the government-backed 'Food from Britain' campaign which is now getting under way.

While food and drink expenditure per head in Scotland is much the same as in the rest of the U.K., primary food production is at a relatively higher level, food processing is slightly less important and alcoholic drink production very much higher. Food production in Scotland is almost 80% of food consumption but probably less than 40% of what we cat has remained within the country all the way from farm or sea to the Scottish consumer. Over half of Scottish consumers' food expenditure goes to processing and distribution and around a quarter to the farming and fishing industry; the balance is spent on imports. Farm output has roughly doubled over the past 30 years while farm prices (relative to other prices) have roughly halved. In recent years food manufacturing has regained the production levels of 1979 while other manufacturing has declined by over 10%. The alcoholic drink industry has suffered much more from the recession. The relatively stable domestic demand for food conceals changes in the pattern of that demand and the development of all sections of the Scottish food and drink economy depends on their adapting to these changes as well as exploiting opportunities to replace imports or develop export markets.

The range of foodstuffs that can be produced by Scottish agriculture depends chiefly on the nature of the soils and the prevailing climate. The landform of Scotland and some of its physical features are discussed in terms of its geology, and the nature of its present-day soils in relation to parent materials is summarized. The agriculturally useful soils have been mapped, inventoried and characterized by the Soil Survey of Scotland and other departments of the Macaulay Institute for Soil Research. The limitations imposed by the soils, their geographical latitude, altitude, aspect, slope, the prevailing weather in their locality, etc., are taken into account in the Land Capability for Agriculture (LCA) assessment. Examples are given of several physical and chemical characteristics which are dominant in Scottish soils and which are of particular significance to the production of foodstuffs.

The pattern of the current Scottish sea fishery is described in terms of landings, value and species. The contribution from fresh water and from aquaculture is also outlined and the possibilities of distant water fisheries noted. The stability of the resource base is examined, and the effects of pollution assessed. For the future of fisheries, the importance of adequate management arrangements coupled with an understanding of how fishing pressure and fluctuations affect the stocks is emphasised.

The extent of resource use—land, capital, labour and management—in Scottish agriculture in the early 1980s is estimated, using available published data. The main developments that have occurred to create this resource base are outlined, with the likely changes that will influence its nature by the mid 1990s. Each of 3 agricultural sectors—dairying, arable and livestock—is considered in turn. The paper concludes by outlining broadly the nature of the base as it might appear by the mid 1990s from the effects of economic and market forces. The pressures on land and labour use, from limitations on production of milk and arable crops but expanded lowland stock enterprises, are highlighted. The serious consequences for agricultural land and labour use in the more remote disadvantaged areas of Scotland are recognised, as is the need to consider the social/amenity value of the retention of a sufficient agricultural base in these areas. Finally, some of the issues and questions associated with the maintenance of agriculture in the hills in the future are indicated.

In Scotland horticultural food crops occupy about 1·4% of the tillage land, and contribute about 4% of the total Scottish agricultural output. Climate, soil type and factors such as distance to markets and availability of labour have influenced the location of horticultural crops. This has changed with time, particularly because of the influence of the processing industry. Soft fruit production (3,630 hectares), with raspberries being the dominant crop, is concentrated in the Tayside region; more than 90% of the raspberry crop is processed by pulping (for jam, etc.), freezing or canning. Vegetable production (6,130 hectares) is somewhat more dispersed from the Border region to the Moray Firth; more than half the total area is occupied by peas for canning and freezing. Glasshouse production of tomatoes is now only 25 hectares located mainly in the Clyde Valley.

The future for Scottish horticultural food production will continue to be influenced by the requirements of the processing industry, but there is also an increasing outlet for fresh fruit and vegetables in supermarkets. Expansion of the production of horticultural food crops in Scotland depends on the ability of the industry to meet market demands in terms of quality and continuity of supply. Increasing reference to the need for an improved British diet may stimulate the consumption of fruit and vegetables on the home market and there continue to be opportunities for increasing the export of processed and fresh produce. Scotland has the land resources, crop production expertise and processing and marketing facilities to respond to these opportunities.

The organisations concerned with agricultural and fisheries research and development in Scotland are outlined and the institutional and funding arrangements are explained. The role of DAFS is presented in an AFRS context and the operation of the customer/contractor principle discussed. The overall objective is to improve the efficiency of plant and animal production in northern Britain, taking account of social, environmental and welfare considerations. Flexibility to respond to changing requirements is an important factor. The remits of the institutes and colleges are set out and are appropriate to the major agricultural sectors. The integrative and collaborative strengths of the commissioned work are illustrated with selected examples of relevance to produce yield, food quality, shelf-life and human diet. Advice on research and development priorities and the allocation of budgets is provided by the new Priorities Board and there is close liaison between DAFS, MAFF and AFRC to ensure co-ordination of effort.

Reference is also made to the main elements of the fisheries research programme. Revised review procedures to monitor research progress and respond to changing industry needs are described. The paper concludes by examining the problems arising from reduced funding.

Only two Scottish universities are directly involved in education in the food area. At Strathclyde students can read for a BSc with honours in Food Science, and for an MSc in Food Science and Microbiology. At Heriot-Watt students can read for a BSc in Brewing, a BSc with honours in Brewing and Microbiology or Biochemistry, and for an MSc in Brewing. Food education in the universities is almost entirely dependent on UGC funding, and sponsorship is rare except for students from overseas. The food industry in Britain has a poor record for supporting university education. In recent years the centralisation of the activities of large manufacturing companies in the South has reduced career prospects for graduates in Scotland. Although few in number, the staff at Strathclyde and Heriot-Watt have earned a high reputation for their research, ranging from basic to applied studies. A significant proportion of doctoral students are from overseas countries, as are most MSc students. Funding for research has always been difficult, except for support from the brewing and distilling industries. However, moves to reorganise and rationalise publicly funded support for R & D in the food and drinks industry are beginning to have an effect, and in some respects the prospects for university food research have never been brighter. There are, however, several unsatisfactory aspects in this situation. Current government policy is to cut-back university funding to the detriment, inter alia, of staffing for food science, thereby restricting the number of research supervisors in a declared area of national priority! This is also harmful in that staff can no longer handle small enquiries and problems from industry, so impairing relations which are already tenuous. Finally, inability to recruit replacement and new staff is preventing the universities from leading the way into new applications of molecular biology and biotechnology in foodstuffs.

This paper looks at the contribution made by the Central Institutions sector in general, and The Queen's College, Glasgow in particular, to the teaching of food studies and the development of related research in Scotland. It traces briefly the developments in food studies over the last 100 years in home economics, dietetics and catering and discusses current concepts in food studies in these disciplines.

The food studies teaching that now forms an integral part of the work of students on higher diploma, degree and postgraduate courses continues to develop due to the growth of staff research investigations and student project work. An important research tradition is being established in the Central Institutions and of particular note is the impressive number of research projects related to food studies.

Course syllabuses are constantly being reviewed and updated in the light of recent developments and changes in society, industry, technology and research. The work at The Queen's College, Glasgow is an example of the developments in food studies at other Central Institutions and illustrates the commitment to the continued development of vocational courses by this sector of education.

This paper gives a brief description of the United Kingdom's fish processing industry and possible future trends. Although the consumption offish in the United Kingdom is relatively modest, about 100 species are used to satisfy this demand. Processing such a diverse resource is difficult and this is exacerbated by uncertainties of supply, seasonal quality fluctuations and the rapid spoilage changes that occur when fish are kept at ambient temperatures.

The food market is highly competitive, which means that processors must make the best possible use of the resource to reduce costs and yet stimulate demand by improving the end product. This is often difficult to do using traditional practices, and so the industry has had to develop novel processing methods to make both conventional products and new ones that will stimulate demand. In the past the specialist retailer, the fishmonger, could be depended upon not only to encourage the purchase of fish but also to provide the finishing touches and to give some instruction on how to cook it. Stimulation of interest and assistance cannot be given so readily in retailing through supermarkets, and so the processor has had to give more attention to presentation, packaging and ensuring that the product can be cooked with little further preparation.

Much of the land surface of Scotland is suitable only for grazing ruminants, but, however inefficient in comparison with plants, these represent the sole feasible means of converting sparse vegetation into an organoleptically desirable and highly nutritious commodity.

The efficiency of meat production could be increased by hormonal enhancement of fertility and growth in cattle and sheep and by various advances in meat science whereby abattoir operations could be greatly accelerated. The latter could involve electrical killing and muscular stimulation, hot deboning and selective conditioning of portions of the carcase. Modernization of abattoir operations would facilitate the economic recovery and upgrading of underutilized animal protein of intrinsically high biological value.

An increase in the preservation of meat and meat products by low doses of ionizing radiation in combination with chilling and by freezing can be envisaged.

Irrespective of current controversies on diet, the nutritive excellence of meat is utterly factual. There are thus both reasons and opportunities for further development of Scottish meat production by ruminants.

In 1983–84, the final year before the introduction of quotas under EEC Regulation 857/84, milk production in Scotland was some 1406 × 106 litres. The disposal of that milk can be considered under two headings, namely (i) the liquid market and (ii) manufactured products. The former category encompasses all the milk—whole, semi-skimmed and skimmed—sold directly to the public via the doorstep delivery or retail outlets. It accounts for approximately 43% of the milk produced in Scotland, but commands the highest monetary return to the producer. The remaining milk goes to manufactured products, principally butter (and anhydrous milk fat), cheese, evaporated milk and cream. The price charged for milk for each of these outlets varies, but is always less than the amount received for milk destined for the liquid market.

In all but a small area of Scotland, one of 3 Milk Marketing Boards is, by statute, the first-hand buyer of milk from the farmer. The Boards, as organisations responsible to the farmers, have a common aim, which is to maximise the price they receive for milk. Each is heavily dependent on the liquid market, but they adopt different strategies in terms of manufactured products. However, the imposition of quotas with effect from 1 April 1984, and the consequent reduction in the total volume of milk produced in Scotland, has focussed attention on the need to manufacture milk products to the most exacting standards, in order that they command a premium in the market.

This paper is limited to the milling and baking of wheat products and, to a smaller extent, oats products. Initial analyses of the marketplace and the major manufacturers in both the United Kingdom and Scotland include references to changing consumer demands, changing market sizes, major grocery retailer power, and industrial over-capacity in both milling and baking.

The sources of wheat for baking are described, in particular the remarkable increase in the use of homegrown wheat for breadmaking. Detailed descriptions are given of the technology of flour milling, breadmaking and biscuit making, covering some of the scientific principles as well as the equipment used. Future developments are also predicted.

Scottish millers and bakers must be at the forefront of investment and new technology if they are to survive competition in declining markets and in industries that still have over-capacity.

This paper gives ‘an insider's view’ of the Scottish processed food manufacturing industry, through the eyes of the Managing Director and Chairman of a distinctive family company sited midway between Aberdeen and Inverness on the banks of the River Spey.

In 1946 the company employed a mere 11 people, and manufactured only preserves and beetroot products, having an annual sales value of £40,000. Today a wide range of products is sold in over 60 countries with an annual turnover approaching £20 million and a profit of £1–5 million.

Forty years ago there were more than 20 jam making companies in Scotland; and in the United Kingdom more than 30 manufacturers of canned soups. Today there are only 5 of the former category and 5 of the latter making and selling their own brands. What has happened in these 40 years? Some answers are given to that question and an outline of the way ahead is presented.

This paper deals with a miscellaneous group of food-related industries not directly covered by the principal papers of the Symposium. Some of these serve the needs of larger processing companies for intermediates. Others produce a variety of products for retail sale. Few are large employers of labour or capital but cumulatively they make a significant contribution to the Scottish economy. The paper lists the type of manufacture in some detail, and the product range—from tripe dressing to confectionery—is too wide to permit easy classification.

These industries serve a virtually non-expanding total market, and are thus for the most part highly competitive, quality and service as much as price being the chief weapon of survival. In general, production is concentrated in small units of modest capital investment. Thus they have the advantage of flexibility and can quickly change product emphasis as circumstances demand, in contrast to the giants of the food industry, limited as they are by the inertia of their size. But these ‘service’ industries have the double disadvantage of limited access to technical and scientific resources, and the burden of complex legislation which falls proportionately more heavily on them than on their larger brethren.

The paper examines aspects of these limitations and outlines suggestions for the practical resolution of some of these disadvantages.

At the moment Scotland has of the order of 15 commercial breweries and these represent a range of production capacities from under 100 barrels per year for the smallest one-man operations to over 2–5 million barrels per year for the largest modern plant. All the main beer types, ale, lager and stout, are produced and lager is a more important component than for the United Kingdom generally. There is 1 Scottish-based United Kingdom national brewer and production is also carried out in Scotland by 3 other of the United Kingdom nationals. These 4 account for most of the beer produced with the rest contributed mainly by 2 Scottish regional brewers and 1 brewery owned by an English regional brewer.

The essentials for beer production, water, malt, hops, yeast, finings and energy, can all be had from Scottish sources with the exception of hops and finings. The last decade has seen a massive increase in the area of barley grown in Scotland and along with this has gone a large increase in malting capacity, so that the supply situation for malt has been transformed. However, brewers may still buy malt from other sources to obtain specific properties or to ensure a more stable blend. In addition, brewers commonly employ a certain amount of unmalted cereal adjuncts, e.g. barley, maize, wheat, and sugar to increase economically the strength of their worts. In cases where beer is meant to keep longer or travel further than the traditional ales, brewers use a variety of filter materials such as cellulose and kieselguhr, stabilizing aids such as PVPP and alginates, and in many modern plants industrial enzymes are used as remedial aids and as established items in the production schedules. None of these quantitatively minor materials seem to be produced by Scottish companies.

The distilling industry in Scotland is a story of 1000 years of romantic history, technical ingenuity and triumph.

Starting with the Celts in a ‘do-it-yourself’ form, through to the Age of Invention around 1786 and with the background of Joseph Black, James Watt and Robert Burns, all of whom were associated with distilling, the cottage industry became industrialised. Then came the development of grain whisky in 1830, as distinct from malt whisky, to be followed by blended whisky in the 1860s.

The various methods of production are described and mention made of such developments as new barleys, new genetically-engineered yeasts, advanced methods of malted barley production and, eventually, high speed handling of the matured whisky into bottles for international marketing.

Yet the process has not basically changed in hundreds of years, retaining its tradition and prestige. Scotch whisky is still the most popular spirit in the world, outside Russia and China, and has become a multi-billion pound investment with numerous scientific and technological achievements.

Changes in the social aspects of life and in the leisure and working activities of the population have had a profound effect on eating patterns in recent years. Today, more people eat away from home, either through enforced circumstances or by choice, and eating out has become part of the nation's lifestyle. Eating habits have changed also. The trend now is towards a more casual style of eating, with more economical meals, snacks and ‘takeaway’ food being consumed.

The catering industry is responding to present day demands with new approaches and new products. ‘Fast food’ has become a predominant feature of contemporary social eating. Technology, in the shape of systemised methods of food production, advanced forms of cooking equipment and convenience commodities, has revolutionised modern catering operations.

The consumer's increasing reliance on the caterer for the nutritional balance of his daily food intake has important implications at a time when the link between diet and disease has been clearly established. The increase in eating outside the home and the introduction of new styles of food and food preparation bring with them a concern for increased vigilance in matters of food hygiene and safety. Current trends also bring with them social consequences. Changes in eating patterns have been instrumental in weakening family influence in the social shaping of young people. The advantages of the new technology could conflict with the interests of the consumer, who may feel that the stereotyped, impersonal product and service he is receiving lack the pleasurable and social experience which he expected.

The managerial complexities of modern catering, the technical expertise it requires and the sociological impact of contemporary trends present fundamental challenges not only for the catering industry but also for the education and training service which seeks to support it.