Tenderness is probably the most important aspect of eating quality in pigmeat although recent industry trends towards leaner carcasses and faster processing times may have tended to reduce it. Two major biological characteristics affecting tenderness are the concentration of intramuscular lipid (marbling fat) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes. This study has compared different levels of three factors which are known to affect these characteristics i.e. breed, feeding level and meat conditioning time. The aim was to contrast production and processing effects on tenderness and provide more information on how it can be controlled.

A DNA test is now available for use in pigs to identify halothane genotype (Fujii et al, 1991; Otsu et al 1991). It has been established that the positive phenotype (nn) at the halothane locus shows advantages in lean yield accompanied by disadvantages in meat quality and stress susceptibility (Webb et al, 1987). The aim of this study was to accurately estimate the relative performance of the halothane heterozygote (Nn) within litters for both production and conformation traits in two breeds of pig.

Halothane genotype was determined for 1131 entire boars and gilts from 389 litters, 145 sires and two lines (Table 1). Line A was derived from a single breed, and selected on rate of lean growth for over 10 generations as a closed population. Line B was a closed synthetic population containing Pietrain and Hampshire.

A project was undertaken to investigate the causes of inadequate sticking encountered during a MAFF commissioned survey of pig abattoirs (Anil and McKinstry, 1993). The results of the investigation identified the length of the sticking (exsanguination) wound as the major contributor to the problem. Experimental abattoir trials conducted on slaughter pigs comparing two sticking lengths indicated that the rate of bleed out was delayed after performing short sticking wounds (Anil, 1994). To demonstrate whether or not short sticking cuts could delay the onset of brain death the effect of short and long sticking wounds on the time to loss of visually evoked responses (VERs) were examined in anaesthetised pigs.

The question of whether witnessing slaughter can cause distress has already been addressed in sheep and no scientific evidence was produced to suggest distress (Anil et al, 1989). Other work in mice and deer have also failed to demonstrate distress during the con specifics being killed (Bracke, 1993). It was not clear as to how this affected pigs as they may have been more or less sensitive to watching the slaughter act. Because trying to get stunned animals out of sight can often result in unduly prolonged stunning to sticking intervals which lead to recovery from stunning in commercial slaughterhouses this topic had direct relevance to the welfare of slaughter pigs. A survey ol pig abattoirs in England and Wales has already confirmed the problem (Anil and McKinstry, 1993). Average stunning to sticking interval was shown to be 31 seconds during the survey (ideal interval should be 15 seconds). The aim of this study was to show whether or not pigs would be distressed by watching the slaughter of their con specifics.

A common method of housing newly weaned pigs from outdoor systems involves very large groups in straw-bedded pens. Concerns regarding pig welfare on these systems have been expressed in relation to excessive group size, the risk of hypothermia (no supplementary heating), disease challenge and the competition to which smaller piglets are subjected. Accordingly, indices of welfare (health, mortality, behaviour, growth rate and feed efficiency) were monitored in 2 large groups of newly weaned pigs.

In outdoor systems the conventional practice is to have due-to-farrow sows in small groups with one farrowing/ lactation hut per sow. A problem sometimes encountered with first parity animals is that 2 gilts share the same hut both at farrowing and later in lactation with consequent adverse effects on the survival and growth of piglets. A controlled comparison was therefore conducted with gilts in either single or group paddocks from parturition to weaning.

Enriching the housing of growing pigs by creating an environment which is responsive can stimulate behaviour patterns similar to that of pigs in semi-natural conditions (Beattie 1994, Simonsen 1990). These changes in behaviour in conjunction with the absence of tail-biting and ear chewing in enriched environments (Beattie, Sneddon & Walker 1993) are indicators of improved welfare (Signoret 1983).

This study investigated the effect of enrichment on welfare, production performance and eating quality of the resultant pork. Welfare was assessed using behavioural measures.

The farrowing crate has been designed to prevent crushing of newborn piglets but restricts sow movement throughout lactation with the result of sow problems such as stereotypies and leg weakness. To improve the sows' and piglets' welfare and meet the requirements of commercial production, the combination of individual farrowing crates, to control the piglet mortality in the first stage, with group housed multisuckling systems to restore the social environment of the sow have been investigated (Petchy, Dodsworth and English, 1978; Bryant, Rowlinson and Steen, 1983; Andersson and Andreasson, 1992; Sinclair, 1993). The change of environment can, however, lead to problems of the sows fighting on the day of mixing and possible increase in piglet mortality by crushing (Andersson and Andreasson, 1992, Sinclair, 1993). The use of a multisuckling system with Meishan crossbreds may utilise the benefits of docile temperament, enhance pig welfare and meet the economic requirements of commercial production.

Fear inducing stimuli are common in modern intensive husbandry systems. It is probable that a principal source of fear is the humans who work with the animals and who, by necessity, have close contact with the animals when carrying out routine husbandry practices.

Signals generated by the stockman, either intentionally or unintentionally, may be perceived by the pig as threatening. There is growing evidence that the complex behavioural relationships between stockmen and their charges can profoundly influence productivity. Seabrook, (1985) found that the personality of the stockman influenced the behaviour and performance of dairy cows. Similarly, Hemsworth et al., (1981) found that on those farms where sows displayed increased avoidance behaviour to the experimenter, the number of piglets born per sow was depressed. In a subsequent study it was found that those pigs which were highly fearful of humans as a result of being aversively handled, exhibited impaired reproductive performance and elevated basal Cortisol levels.

The regulations to phase out stall and tether systems by 1 January 1999 will result in UK sows being group housed. The formation of either small stable groups or large, dynamic groups by mixing unfamiliar sows results in aggression between sows. One consequence of aggression is damage to the skin which, if severe may compromise the welfare of the sow. To assess the level of damage resulting from aggression between sows, a simple, rapid scoring method is needed. The objective of this work was to establish which areas of the sow were the main target sites for attack and to use this information to devise an animal based method of scoring damage.

A major problem reported by many commercial producers keeping sows in group housing systems, is that of inter-sow aggression and bullying, due to the establishment and maintenance of a social hierarchy. Even in stalls and tethers, inter-neighbour aggression can be high but the physical consequences for the sow receiving the aggression are negligible, due to the lack of opportunity for physical contact. In a group situation, an inability to prevent attack by another sow can itself lead to poor welfare, in addition to any effects of injury or pain caused by the attack. A sow's ability to control its social environment can not only affect its access to resources (Edwards et al., 1993), but also its physiological state and productivity (Mendl et al., 1992).

The aim of this experiment was to determine the effects that different intensities and degrees of success of agonistic social interaction have on the heart rate of sows, which can be a useful measure of the emotional response of an individual to short-term problems such as social challenge.

The objective of this experiment was to study colostrum yields and immunoglobulin (Ig) concentrations and subsequent calf serum Ig concentrations using mature suckler cows adequately fed pre-partum or severely feed restricted for the last 2 weeks of preganancy and 2 year old replacements heifers.

Cows from a Limousin x Friesian spring calving suckler herd were used. There were 3 treatments 1) cows adequately fed pre-partum (second cut grass silage) (n=12) 2) , cows severely feed restricted for 2 weeks pre-partum (straw diet) (n=6) and, 3) two year old heifers calving for the first time and adequately fed (n=6). All animals were offered a suitable mineral/vitamin supplement. Colostrum yield was obtained by hand milking half the udder following an intramuscular oxytocin injection. Colostrum was then sampled. The objective was to feed the calf an allowance of 50g of colostrum /kg bodyweight via stomach tube. Actual colostrum intakes (g/kg bodyweight ± S.E.) were 47 ± 1.4, 48 ± 2.3 and 46 ± 1.9 for treatments 1, 2 and 3, respectively. Following an eight hour period when the calf was prevented from suckling (but left in the presence of the dam) a colostrum sample was obtained (2nd milking), the calf was blood sampled and then allowed to suckle as normal.

Studies concerning farm animals are increasingly using heart rate (HR) as a welfare indicator because it is thought to be affected during the situations which an animal perceives as ‘stressful’. However, many studies are based on insufficient fundamental information and a limited understanding of the methodology. It has been established that an animal can respond to short-term ‘stressful’situations by rapidly releasing adrenaline which increases heart rate, heart output and blood pressure, and potentially prepares an animal for the ‘fight or flight’ response. However, it is self evident that heart rate is also affected by factors other than the release of adrenaline. Indeed, other studies and reviews (Baldock and Sibly, 1990 ; Fraser and Broom, 1990) have commented on the need to remove, primarily, behaviour as a confounding variable in studies using heart rate as a welfare indicator. Therefore, it is essential that the correct protocol is followed if heart rate is to be used as an unconfounded, objective indicator of welfare. Thus, the aim of the following study was to observe the effect of specific environmental occurrences on the HR of dairy cattle during the milking process, whilst illustrating a method of extracting heart rate data which could be used as a welfare indicator.

The effects of husbandry conditions on the immune responses of suckled and bucket-reared calves has previously been reported by Mackenzie et al. (1993 a; 1993b; 1994) and there was a trend for weaning to result in decreased lymphocyte transformation test responses to mitogens along with increased humoral responses to the antigen keyhole limpet haemocyanin (KLH). Mean worker have made measurements of behavioural, endocrine and immune responses to attempt to determine the welfare status of domestic animals. However, there have been few studies where attempts have been made to measure all three parameters together. This pilot study was designed to investigate the relationship between husbandry conditions which may result in behavioural, endocrine and immune changes and to consider possible relationships in these parameters.

The main objective of hoof trimming is to restore the foot to its correct form and accurate weight bearing surfaces (Blowey, 1993). Furthermore, trimming is applied as a means to cure diseases and lameness of the foot. Hoof care for shaping up the foot is usually carried out either by time - for example every cow once a year - or by necessity - all those animals with very long and overgrown claws. This observational study was aimed to investigate how long the influence of trimming lasts when applied for the purpose of restoring the hoof to its correct shape.

Continuation of arterial blood supply to the head following slaughter of certain ruminant meat animal species can lead to delays in loss of sensibility and present welfare problems. This sometimes occurs in cattle due to an anastomosis linking the vertebral arteries to the carotid rete. The arterial supply to the head of the ox was found to differ from that of the sheep. In the ox the vertebral arteries can supply blood to the carotid rete via the basi-occipital plexus (Baldwin and Bell, 1963). This additional anastomosis means that there is still a potential blood supply to the head after the carotids have been severed by neck sticking Anil et al, 1995). Blood clots on the severed carotid arteries following neck sticking can occur in up to 40% of cases to varying degrees and sometimes lead to occlusions for a number of reasons. This phenomenon of carotid occlusion means the occipital-vertebral anastomosis and the vertebral-carotid rete anastomosis take on more importance when neck sticking is used. This is especially true for religious slaughter and neck sticking where electrical stunning is used. It is not clear whether such an anastomosis exists in the head of red deer. The traditional and still legal method of slaughter of farmed deer is by head shot in the field, however, there has been an increase in the number of deer being culled in abattoirs. In addition, there have been recent suggestions that religious slaughter without stunning may be initiated in the U.K. abattoirs. This possibility and and the increased number of abattoirs slaughtering deer have prompted this study to look at the arterial blood supply in the head of the deer. This increase combined with the problems of arterial supply found in cattle has prompted this study.

Bruising of sheep results in economic loss to the meat industry and is one indicator of welfare problems associated with pre-slaughter management. This study relates potentially traumatic handling and behavioural events (wool-pull, tail-pull, fall, hit structure, riding, head-butt, other) during loading on farms, unloading and handling at a slaughterhouse, the initial 3 h in the lairage, and conditions during transport, to the occurrence of carcase bruising of 79 groups of sheep (n=2509) transported direct from farms to one of two commercial slaughterhouses.

The long distance transport of sheep before slaughter is at present a very important topic in animal welfare. However, Modulation of opioid receptors can be influenced by chronic treatment with opioid agonists and antagonists (Blanchard, and Chang, 1988). Similarly, opioid receptors can be up or down-regulated by stressful stimuli such as restraint, electric footshock or social isolation and housing (Zeman et al., 1988 and Zanella et al., 1991). The present study was carried out to assess the effects of transport stress on the properties of one class of opioid peptide receptor in the brain of sheep after transport stress. Opioid peptides such as β-endorphin are released by the central nervous system during application of stresses such as transport. They are believed to exert analgesic properties and their effectiveness depends partly on the concentration (Bmax) and affinity (Kd) of their receptors. µ-Opioid receptors are found in various brain regions and are selective for endorphins and similar peptides.

Most sheep sent for slaughter in the UK are sold through livestock markets. This study quantified potentially traumatic events (wool-pull, tail-pull, fall, hit structure, riding, head-butt, other) at two markets (549 groups of sheep, n=12119) and recorded the occurrence of carcase bruising on sheep from these markets. Carcase bruising of sheep sent to the slaughterhouse direct from farms was also recorded.

For every event the body site affected was classified as foreleg, thorax, abdomen, hindleg or back. Handling at the markets was categorised into 4 procedures: unloading (unloading from a vehicle, movement via walkways to a weighbridge, grading, division and marking of groups, placement in a holding pen), pre-sale and sale (movement from the pen through walkways to the auction ring, then to a new pen), post-sale (movement from the pen through walkways to a loading bay area) and loading (loading onto a vehicle via the vehicle tail-gate and a fixed unloading ramp). There was a total of 1324 and 744 events per 1000 sheep at markets A and B, respectively. The unloading of 40 groups of sheep (n=1501) and pre-slaughter handling of 60 groups (n=1085) was observed at the commercial slaughterhouse where the bruising observations were made. The overall occurrence of events at the slaughterhouse was 694 per 1000 sheep.

Bruising of cattle can result in economic loss to the meat industry and is one indicator of welfare problems associated with pre-slaughter management. This study quantified the occurrence of potentially traumatic events (hit gate, hit structure, mounting, fall, slip, butting, horning) during pre-slaughter handling of 350 groups of cattle (n=3296), and carcase bruising of 340 groups (n=3270), slaughtered at two commercial slaughterhouses during 22 working days. The cattle were transported to the slaughterhouses in commercial transporters and farm vehicles and were mainly Limousin, Charolais and Simmental crosses. At slaughterhouse A 124 groups (n=1058) had been transported direct from farms, and 48 groups (n=626) were from markets. At slaughterhouse B 122 groups (n=896) were from farms, and 56 groups (n=716) were from markets.