The use of dentition as an indicator of age has been accepted for many years, particularly in the equine, although as yet, dentition as a means of age determination has never been used in cattle in commercial grading situations. The age of an animal at slaughter is generally believed to be inversely related to meat tenderness. Other aspects of meat quality have also been found to be affected by age, particularly in young bulls. These include flavour, juiciness, colour of lean and firmness. It has long been acknowledged that the greater stress susceptibility of bulls (who get more aggressive with increasing age) is the reason for the higher incidence of dark cutting in bull beef. The supply of older bulls to the food chain, may, therefore, be deleterious to meat quality and may be contributing to the poor reputation of bull beef. The objective of the present study was to develop a method for predicting chronological age at slaughter from the dentition of Aberdeen Angus x and Charolais x bulls. The experimental design allowed the effects of breed and diet to be assessed.

Slaughtering cattle at lighter weights to produce leaner meat might be expected to improve efficiency of production. An earlier experiment with Hereford x Friesian steers (Thomas, Kay, Hamilton and Fisher, 1987) showed no significant effect on feed efficiency when cattle were slaughtered at three different EC fat classes. An experiment was subsequently carried out to examine the effect on performance, carcass characteristics and meat quality of two breeds of cattle slaughtered at three different levels of fatness. In this experiment backfat depth was used as the criterion for slaughter.

Thirty Hereford x Friesian/Holstein steers (initial weight 326 kg) and 30 Limousin x Holstein/Friesian steers (initial weight 340 kg) were used in the experiment.

Deer are strictly seasonal animals. In mid-winter a period of reduced feed intake and growth ensues, and is especially pronounced in weaned calves (Kay, 1989). As a result the majority of farmed venison is slaughtered at 15-20 months of age. Research has shown that winter inappetance is affected by photoperiod (Simpson et al., 1984). This may offer the potential to manipulate growth rates, and alleviate the current problem of venison marketing and continuity of supply. The objective of this experiment was to investigate the possibility of producing carcasses of an acceptable size and quality at different times of the year.

Forty-two weaned calves( Friesian X Native) of 100 Kg body weight were used in this study to estimate the most appropriate feeding level for calves reared under the upper Egypt conditions. The experimental farm of Animal production department, Faculty of Agriculture, El-Minia University, Egypt, was the farm where this work was conducted. Calves (21 males and 21 females) were randomly alloted into three equal groups fed on concentrate mixture (44% wheat bran, 19% yellow maize, 12.5% cotton seed meal, 12.5% cotton seed hulls, 5% extracted rice bran, 4% molasses, 2% lime stone and 1% sodium chloride) and rice straw in quantities that meet 80 , 100 and 120% of the averaged feed standerds (Kellner, 1926; Morrison,1957; T'ommi,19S3; ARC, 1979 and NEC, 1984). Barseem (Trifolium Alexandrinum),the popular green clover was included in the diet to represent 50% of the roughage portion(1 % of the body weigi when it was available. The concentrate mixture was offered twice dail at 10 a.m. and 4 p.m. while rice straw was introduced once daily at 8 a.m. . Water was freely available. The feeding period was extended til the males achieved 400 Kg body weight and slaughtered, while females were kept for breeding.

Fat supplementation is commonly used in feedstufs for high yielding cows or ewes. The diet for growing-fattening bulls in Belgium are usually high in concentrate. The fat content.of such diets .is low at .about 2.51. Over the recent years, feed manufacturers have incorporated fat in diets for growing-fattening animals (Clmquart, Istasse, Dufrasne, Mayombo, Van Eenaeme, Bienfait, 1991). In most of the reported works the fat supplemented diets were offered during the whole fattening period according to Brandt, Anderson and Elliot (1988) and Zinn (1989), differences in performance could be expected when the fat supplement is offered only during the finishing period. An experimental was designed to compare the effects of fat supplementation during the last part of the fattening period on the performance and meat characteristics of fattening bulls.

Beef meat in Belgium is mainly produced from growing fattening bulls. In the usual technique, the average daily gain is about 1.0 kg/day during the growing period while it is about 1.4 to 1.5 kg/d during the fattening period (Clinquart et al., 1991). The aim of the present trial was to study another growth curve characterized by a low growth rate during the growing period and to assess the effects in terms of coipensatory growth during the fattening period.

Growth rate in young animals is closely related to feed intake. Restriction followed by adequate feeding results in compensatory growth. During the latter period high growth rates are observed. The aim of this study was to look at metabolic and hormonal parameters associated with two different growth patterns, e.g. normal growing-fattening and restricted growth followed by compensatory growth in young bulls of the highly productive Belgian Blue breed.

Twelve young Belgian Blue (BB) bulls (initial weight 233 kg) were given, during a 202 days growing period either a normal (control group, +) or a restricted diet (compensatory growth group, -). The imposed growth rates were 1 kg/d and .3 kg/d respectively. In the subsequent fattening period the same fattening diet was given to both groups. The fattening period lasted for 82 and 194 days for the + and - group respectively.

The degree to which growth patterns are modified after a period of food restriction affects the compositional changes of the carcasses(Carstens et al., 1992), furthermore, the growth rate has a direct effect on the physical properties of meat (Fishell et al., 1985). The objective of this experiment was to evaluate the effects of a severe food restriction at a early stage of maturity on the slaughter characteristics and meat quality of Belgian Blue bulls.

Twelve Belgian Blue bulls (dual purpose type) weighing 233 kg were offered two different planes of nutrition during the growing period. Six bulls (Group-) received a restricted diet so that their average daily gain was 0.34 kg/d (Group+) during 202 days. By contrast six other bulls were given a more conventional growing diet and their average daily gain was 1.13 kg/d. Both Groups were fattened with similar diet and slaughtered when the live weight was close to 600 kg. Carcass weight was measured and killing-out proportion calculated, the composition of the carcass was estimated after dissection of ribs 7, 8, 9 removed 48 h post-mortem.

Modifications to laying cages suggested by previous trials at Edinburgh include provision of a perch, a nest box and a dust bath, and increased area and height compared to conventional cages; the effects of combining these features is now described. Medium-weight hybrids were housed as groups of 4 in 48 cages of 4 types:

• control cages (C);

• experimental cages with nest box lined with litter (L);

• experimental cages with nest box lined with artificial turf (A);

• experimental cages with nest box lined with plastic grid (P).

In sub-treatments A1 and P1, eggs were prevented from rolling away for the first 6 weeks of lay, by blocking the rollaway slot. In sub-treatments A2 and P2, eggs rolled away from the beginning of lay.

Most farrowing pens have slatted floors mainly to achieve labour economy and high standards of hygiene. A major deficiency of such flooring is the difficulty of using bedding to reduce hypothermia of newborn piglets and to protect their delicate tissues from the relative abrasiveness of the floor. Shredded waste paper bedding may have useful applications in such situations because of its texture and cohesiveness, qualities which slow up the rate at which it is voided through the slats relative to other bedding materials. Such paper bedding was evaluated in a controlled experiment.

Freedom of movement and the opportunity to express normal behaviours are important requirements for any housing system which satisfies the welfare codes (MAFF, 1983). Intensive pig production systems generally house farrowing sows in crates to minimise the probability that piglets will be crushed. To satisfy the welfare codes there is, therefore, a need to develop a loose housing system which satisfies a multiplicity of conditions. It must give the sow unrestrained movement, allow nest building activities, provide physical protection and warm environmental conditions for the young piglets. In a previous choice trial sows sited their nests within cubicles rather than a corner or beside a straight wall (Hunt and Petchey, 1989). In another trial they were offered an arrangement of parallel walls spaced 0.55,0.95 or 1.35 m apart, most sows (0.44) chose to farrow between the 0.55 m spaced walls (Petchey, 1991). Sows making this choice (ie 0.55 m spacing) also exhibited more nest building behaviours and built significantly bigger nests (P<0.05). The trial reported here offers sows the preferred sites of the two previous trials.

The majority of sows in the United Kingdom farrow in commercial ‘crates', irrespective of the housing system in which they were kept during gestation. Consumer demand is influencing current thinking on intensive husbandry systems and this, together with approaching legislation concerning the ban on stalls and tethers, is forcing the UK pig industry to move further towards group housing for gestating sows. More research needs to be carried out to assess the effects that the close confinement afforded by farrowing crates, have on sows which have previously gestated in an open environment. The objective of this study was to determine whether the housing conditions of gestating sows had effects on their responses to farrowing conditions.

The study was carried out on twenty - two Large White X Landrace sows ranging from 3rd to 6th parity. Eleven sows housed in stalls, and eleven sows loose-housed in a large group were each observed over two farrowings; once in an open pen and once in a conventional crate, giving eleven farrowings observed in each of four treatments. Five days before the predicted farrowing date, the sows were removed from the dry sow house, weighed, washed and moved to the farrowing house. Here they were recorded, using timelapse video, from entry until farrowing had occurred. Production figures were also noted. The number of posture changes were recorded, and the average duration and total duration per posture type calculated in three separate 24 hour periods.These periods were;1) the first 24 hours in the farrowing house,2) the period between 72-48 hours before farrowing.and 3) the 24 hours preceding farrowing. Not all sows farrowed on the fifth day after entry into the farrowing house, and where Period 1 overlapped with Period 2, the Period 2 results were omitted from the analysis. The postures recorded were; Standing, Sitting/Kneeling, Lying on Udder and Lying with Udder Exposed.

Sows show increased activity during the pre-parturient period and if given the opportunity will express nest-building behaviour (Haskell and Hutson, 1993). It has been suggested that farrowing crates by closely confining sows and preventing this pre-parturient behaviour induce behavioural stress. The aim of this work was to test this hypothesis by measuring the effect of parturition environment on plasma levels of Cortisol a commonly used physiological indicator of behavioural stress in pigs.

Twenty-three Large White x Landrace gilts (Cotswold Pig Development Co Ltd, UK; average weight 187 kg ± 3) were implanted with Jugular catheters approximately 10-14 days before their expected farrowing date (EFD). After surgery the animals were moved to 2 x 2 m strawed pens, before being transferred on day 5 before EFD, either into a standard farrowing crate without bedding (Treatment C; n = 11) or into a strawed farrowing pen (2.1 x 3.1 m; Treatment P; n = 12). The animals were blood sampled on the day before (Pre/In) and the day after introduction (Post/In) to the treatments. Blood sampling was resumed 48 hours before EFD and continued until 5 hours post-commencement of farrowing. Samples were generally taken every 4 hours over 24 hour periods, expect for day Post/In, when more rapid sampling took place over the 2 hours post-introduction (Post/lni), before sampling returned to every 4 hours for the rest of the 24 hour period (Post/ln2). More rapid sampling also occurred from approximately 24 hours pre- to 5 hours post-parturition. The plasma was assayed for Cortisol and the data averaged over the following time periods: Pre/In; Post/lni; Post/ln2 -48 to -24 hours (-48/-24); -23.30 to -12 hours (-24/-12); -11.30 to 0 (parturition) hours (-12/0); 0.30 to 2 hours (0/2); 2.30 to 5 hours (2/5). The data were transformed by log and analysed by analysis of variance.

Use of a farrowing crate can benefit newborn piglets but imposes severe restriction on sow movement throughout lactation. It is necessary to find a compromise between the commercial requirements for control in the immediate neonatal period, to maximise piglet survival, and enhanced welfare for the animals, by reducing environmental restriction. This might be achieved by combining individual farrowing in controlled systems with later multisuckling of a group of contemporary litters in a larger and more diverse environment. Application of modern understanding on nutrition and environment could allow such systems to function more successfully than in the past and provide a commercially attractive option.

A total of 33 purebred Landrace or Large White sows and their litters were used in the study. All sows farrowed in commercial accommodation based on farrowing crates in partly slatted pens. These pens had a covered creep area for the piglets which was bedded with shavings. Control litters remained in this accommodation until weaning. Experimental litters were moved to specially constructed multisuckling pens.

Freedom of movement and freedom to express normal behaviour are fundamental principles underlying most welfare guidelines (e.g. Brambell, 1965). The restrictive nature of the farrowing crate and its potential to limit the repertoire of species specific behaviours may influence the welfare of the sow (Higginson, 1985). The objective of this study was to examine sow behaviour in different farrowing systems and specifically to investigate the behavioural component of improved winter production results in a less restrictive farrowing pen system (Rudd et al., Paper 18, 1993 BSAP Winter Meeting).

Three farrowing systems in neighbouring rooms were compared. Two systems allowed the sows to move freely, i) five strawed pens (2.5m x 1.5m) with farrowing rail (Pen), and ii) five crates modified to allow the sows to walk through (Free Crate). Sows had access via a passageway to a transponder-controlled feeder and a North facing (shaded) outside area with two water drinkers. Piglets were contained in their home Pen or Free Crate area by a small barrier (30cm high).

Dominance allows animals priority of access to resources when these are limited. It is common practice to feed dry sows once or twice daily a relatively small amount of food. This can lead to high competition for food, when there are no provisions for individual feeding of group housed sows. In contrast, competition for food should be low when offered ad libitum. This study was designed to investigate the effect of feeding regime on the measurement of hierarchies in group housed dry sows.

Four groups of 12 multiparous sows were housed in deep straw pens (3.1 m2/sow). Two groups were offered a high fibre diet ad libitum from a three-space hopper (LC) and two groups were floor-fed 3 kg/sow of a standard diet once daily (HC). The diet composition is given in Brouns et al (1992).

Groups were allocated to treatment after service. After two months on treatment, the dominance of every sow in each pen was determined in a feed competition test between all possible dyads of sows. A more detailed description of this test is given in Brouns et al (1992). The results of this test indicated how many pen mates each sow dominated (DR). This was used to calculate an index of linearity for the hierarchy (Appleby, 1983) giving a value between 0 and 1, where 1 indicates a completely linear hierarchy.

Little objective information is available on the relative merits of straw based and slatted floored systems for the weaned pig in terms of performance and indices of welfare. A controlled experiment was conducted in an attempt to obtain relevant information.

The following 3 systems were compared: (1) straw bedded pens (SB), conventional flat decks (FD) and identical flat decks with environmental enrichment (FD+). The FD pens had fully perforated expanded metal floors with an ad lib feeder across the front of the pen and 2 nipple drinkers on the opposite wall. The enriched FD pens had a variety of ‘recreational’ objects added - a metal chain and tyre suspended from the ceiling within the pigs’ reach, a concrete block, a tyre and an assortment of rounded stones of different size placed on the pen floor. There were 3 pens per room but only 2 were used in the trial, one each for the FD and FD+ treatments. Temperature control was by means of 2 gas heaters and a fan assisted ventilation system which was thermostatically controlled. The straw pens were located in a large cattle court which had a concrete floor; within each pen there was a kennelled lying area and an open outrun. The whole floor surface was kept liberally covered with good quality dry barley straw. An identical ad lib feeder to that in the flat decks was provided in the outrun area and 2 nipple drinkers were provided adjacent to the feeder. In all treatments for the first 3 days of the trial a box drinker was placed in each pen to allow the pigs time to familiarise themselves with the nipple drinkers.

Pigs in a semi-natural environment can spend up to one third of daylight hours in exploratory behaviour (Stolba & Wood-Gush, 1981). It has been suggested that the need for exploration in pigs is as necessary as feeding or sexual behaviour which are generally regarded as endogenous (Van Putten, 1989).

This study investigated the effect of enriching the pig's environment on behaviour, growth and meat quality.

In a comparative study using 6 groups each of 6 littermates, 3 groups were allocated at birth to an intensive housing system classified as the “barren” (B) environment and 3 groups to an “enriched” (E) environment. The enriched environment had four times more floor space per animal than the barren environment and allowed access to substrates such as peat, straw and shredded paper. Pigs were weaned at 6 weeks of age and pen size was increased at 6 and 12 weeks of age on both treatments. In both environments the pigs were fed ad libitum and had a continuous water supply. The behaviour of 2 focal animals in each group was observed for 10 minutes twice weekly between 1300 and 1800 hours throughout the 18 week life span of the animals. At 6 week intervals 24 hour time lapse video recordings were made to examine overall activity patterns.

The litter and wire system of housing for laying hens is a compromise between an all litter system (maximum stocking density 7 birds/m2) and the perchery system (maximum stocking density 25 birds/m2).The wire areas are usually constructed over a droppings pit.The current EC Egg Marketing Regulations allow a proportion of the wire area to be Included as perching area and this permits the stocking density to be increased to 11.7 birds/m2, as long as a minimum of 53% of the floor area is wire.

In 2 studies at Gleadthorpe between 1990-92 the laying performance, behaviour and welfare of laying hens in a litter and wire system were evaluated. The pen, with a floor area of 10.0m x 7.67m contained 3 areas of wood shavings litter. The litter areas were separated longitudinally by two, 250 mm high, raised platforms of wire mesh built over a droppings pit. The wire mesh covered 57% of the floor area. Chain feeder and nipple drinker lines were positioned over the wire area. Each bird had 95 mm of feeder space and nipple drinkers were provided at a ratio of 1 per 6 birds.Two tiers of “Astroturf” lined, rear roll-away nestboxes were provided, one per 5.9 birds along each of the longest sides of the unit. During the first month of lay, nest boxes were “managed” to discourage overnight roosting.

In an integrated group housing system for sows, animals of all stages of production are kept in one group, except around farrowing, and remain there throughout their productive life. Lactating sows have access to the suckling section of the house via an electronic gate. Jostling of piglets from different litters is avoided by keeping the litters in their own suckling pen until weaning. The system allows lactating sows to freely evade their piglets, and move between the suckling section and the communal area. They can maintain their social position and cool off in the relative cool communal area. Earlier observations (Houwers et al., 1992) showed sows decreased sucklings and increased their absence from the farrowing pen towards weaning. It was not clear whether the overall performance of the piglets was depressed by absence of sows before weaning. The relevance for practical farming partly depends on the production results that can be achieved.