Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-dk4vv Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T18:49:34.776Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The Religion of the Nonreligious and the Politics of the Apolitical: The Transformation of Falun Gong from Healing Practice to Political Movement

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 November 2013

Junpeng Li
Junpeng Li*
Affiliation:
Columbia University
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Junpeng Li, Department of Sociology, Columbia University, Knox Hall, 606 West 122nd Street, MC 9649, New York, NY 10027. E-mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This article applies the conflict-amplification model to the development of Falun Gong. Falun Gong emerged in the early 1990s as a health-enhancing practice and part of the state-sanctioned qigong movement in China. Faced with increasing state suspicion of qigong and fierce competition from other groups, it metamorphosed into a new religious movement in the mid-1990s. State efforts to keep Falun Gong out of the political realm had the effect of releasing the group's political potential and led to its campaign of “truth clarification,” which further alerted the state to its ideological challenge and capacity to mobilize. Through a process of mutual feedback, the antagonism between the two parties culminated in religious violence and in Falun Gong's transformation into a political movement. The organizational evolution of Falun Gong is an illustration of the religion of the nonreligious and the politics of the apolitical in an authoritarian state.

Type
Articles
Information
Politics and Religion , Volume 7 , Issue 1 , March 2014 , pp. 177 - 208
Copyright
Copyright © Religion and Politics Section of the American Political Science Association 2013 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Al-Rasheed, Madawi, and Shterin, Marat. 2009. “Between Death of Faith and Dying for Faith.” In Dying for Faith, eds. Al-Rasheed, Madawi and Shterin, Marat. New York, NY: I.B.Tauris, xvii–xxx.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Amnesty International. 1999. “Reports of Torture and Ill-treatment of Followers of the Falun Gong.” http://www.amnesty.org/ar/library/asset/ASA17/054/1999/en/22848687-e00d-11dd-be0f-b562ab8ac90b/asa170541999en.pdf (Accessed on May 17, 2012).Google Scholar
Amnesty International. 2000. “The Crackdown on Falun Gong and Other So-called ‘Heretical Organizations.’” http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/asset/ASA17/011/2000/en/77562be8-df70-11dd-acaa-7d9091d4638f/asa170112000en.pdf (Accessed on May 17, 2012).Google Scholar
Chang, Maria. 2004. Falun Gong. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Clearwisdom.net. 2004a. “A Chronicle of Major Historic Events during the Introduction of Falun Dafa to the Public.” http://en.minghui.org/emh/articles/2004/10/8/53286p.html (Accessed on May 9, 2013).Google Scholar
Clearwisdom.net. 2004b. “Answers to Commonly Asked Questions about Falun Gong.” http://en.minghui.org/emh/articles/2004/9/1/52070.html (Accessed on May 17, 2012).Google Scholar
Dowell, William. 1999. “Interview with Li Hongzhi.” Time Asia, http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2053761,00.html. (Accessed on May 28, 2012).Google Scholar
Duan Qiming. 2006. “Pan Guoyan: daxiang meiti jiepi Li Hongzhi diyiqiang (Pan Guoyan: First shot of the media's exposure and criticism of Li Hongzhi).” http://www.kaiwind.com/redian/fxds/200706/t39265.htm (Accessed on May 17, 2012).Google Scholar
Falun Dafa Information Center. 2009. “Key Statistics Related to Falun Gong.” http://faluninfo.net/article/909/?cid=162 (Accessed May 17, 2012).Google Scholar
Fang, Bay. 1999. “An Opiate of the Masses?” U.S. News & World Reports, February 22, 45–46.Google Scholar
Gupta, Dipak K., Singh, Harinder, and Sprague, Tom. 1993. “Government Coercion of Dissidents: Deterrence or Provocation?” Journal of Conflict Resolution 37:301–339.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Havel, Václav. [1978] 1985. “The Power of the Powerless.” In The Power of the Powerless. Armonk, NY: Palach, 23–96.Google Scholar
Kipnis, Andrew B. 2001. “The Flourishing of Religion in Post-Mao China and the Anthropological Category of Religion.” Australian Journal of Anthropology 12:32–46.Google Scholar
Kipnis, Andrew B. 2008. China and Postsocialist Anthropology: Theorizing Power and Society after Communism. Norwalk, VT: EastBridge.Google Scholar
Lake, Eli. 2009. “Hacking the Regime.” New Republic, September 9, 18–20.Google Scholar
Li, Hongzhi. [1996] 1999. “Lecture in Sydney.” http://www.falundafa.org/book/eng/lectures/1996L.html (Accessed on May 17, 2012).Google Scholar
Li, Hongzhi. [1998] 1999. “Teaching the Fa at the Assistants' Fa Conference in Changchun.” http://www.falundafa.org/book/eng/lectures/19980726L.html (Accessed on May 17, 2012).Google Scholar
Li, Hongzhi. 1999. “A Brief Statement of Mine.” http://en.minghui.org/emh/download/publications/peacereport_statement.html (Accessed on May 17, 2012).Google Scholar
Li, Hongzhi. 2000. “Serious Teachings.” http://en.minghui.org/emh/special_column/cultivation/serious-teachings-000928.doc (Accessed on May 17, 2012).Google Scholar
Li, Hongzhi. [1996] 2001. “Huge Exposure.” In Falun Dafa Essentials for Further Advancement. http://www.falundafa.org/book/eng/pdf/jjyz_en.pdf (Accessed on May 17, 2012).Google Scholar
Li, Hongzhi. [1998] 2001. “Digging Out the Roots.” In Falun Dafa Essentials for Further Advancement. http://www.falundafa.org/book/eng/pdf/jjyz_en.pdf (Accessed on May 17, 2012).Google Scholar
Li, Hongzhi. [1994] 2002. “Explaining the Fa for Falun Dafa Assistants in Changchun.” In Explaining the Content of Falun Dafa. http://www.falundafa.org/book/eng/pdf/yj_en.pdf (Accessed on May 10, 2013).Google Scholar
Li, Hongzhi. [1995] 2002. “Comments for Republication.” In Explaining the Content of Falun Dafa. http://www.falundafa.org/book/eng/pdf/yj_en.pdf (Accessed on May 17, 2012).Google Scholar
Li, Hongzhi. [2000] 2002. “Teaching the Fa at the Western U.S. Fa Conference.” In Guiding the Voyage. http://www.falundafa.org/book/eng/pdf/daohang.pdf (Accessed on May 17, 2012).Google Scholar
Li, Hongzhi. [2001] 2002. “Teaching the Fa at the 2001 Canada Fa Conference.” In Guiding the Voyage. http://www.falundafa.org/book/eng/pdf/daohang.pdf (Accessed on May 17, 2012).Google Scholar
Li, Hongzhi. [1994] 2003. Zhuan Falun. http://www.falundafa.org/book/eng/pdf/zfl_new.pdf (Accessed on May 25, 2012).Google Scholar
Li, Hongzhi. 2003. “Teaching the Fa at the 2003 Midwest-U.S. Fa Conference.” http://www.falundafa.org/book/eng/lectures/20030622L.html (Accessed May 17, 2012).Google Scholar
Li, Hongzhi. [1998] 2004. “Teaching the Fa at the Assistants' Fa Conference in Changchun.” http://www.falundafa.org/book/eng/lectures/19980726L.html (Accessed on May 17, 2012).Google Scholar
Li, Hongzhi. [1994] 2005. “Teaching the Fa and Answering Questions in Guangzhou.” In Zhuan Falun Fajie. http://www.falundafa.org/book/eng/pdf/zfl_fajie.pdf (Accessed on May 17, 2012).Google Scholar
Li, Hongzhi. [1995] 2005. “Teaching the Fa in Beijing at the Zhuan Falun Publication Ceremony.” In Zhuan Falun Fajie. http://www.falundafa.org/book/eng/pdf/zfl_fajie.pdf (Accessed on May 17, 2012).Google Scholar
Li, Hongzhi. [1999] 2005. “Some Thoughts of Mine.” In Essentials for Further Advancement II. http://www.falundafa.org/book/eng/pdf/jjyz2.pdf (Accessed on May 17, 2012).Google Scholar
Li, Hongzhi. [2000] 2005a. “Eliminate Your Last Attachment(s).” In Essentials for Further Advancement II. http://www.falundafa.org/book/eng/pdf/jjyz2.pdf (Accessed on May 17, 2012).Google Scholar
Li, Hongzhi. [2000] 2005b. “In Reference to a Prophecy.” In Essentials for Further Advancement II. http://www.falundafa.org/book/eng/pdf/jjyz2.pdf (Accessed on May 17, 2012).Google Scholar
Li, Hongzhi. [2001] 2005. “Fa-Rectification and Cultivation.” In Essentials for Further Advancement II. http://www.falundafa.org/book/eng/pdf/jjyz2.pdf (Accessed on May 17, 2012).Google Scholar
Li, Hongzhi. 2005. “Turning the Wheel Again.” http://www.theepochtimes.com/news/5-2-16/26445.html (Accessed on May 20, 2012).Google Scholar
Li, Hongzhi. [1993] 2006. Falun Gong. http://www.falundafa.org/book/eng/pdf/flg_2006.pdf (Accessed on May 19, 2012).Google Scholar
Li, Hongzhi. [1997] 2006. The Great Way of Spiritual Perfection. http://www.falundafa.org/book/eng/pdf/dymf_2006.pdf (Accessed on May 19, 2012).Google Scholar
Li, Hongzhi. [1996] 2007. “Teaching the Fa at the International Experience-Sharing Conference in Beijing.” http://www.falundafa.org/book/eng/lectures/19961111L.html (Accessed on May 17, 2012).Google Scholar
Li, Hongzhi. 2007. “Fa Teaching at the 2007 New York Fa Conference.” http://www.falundafa.org/book/eng/lectures/20070407L.html (Accessed on May 17, 2012).Google Scholar
Lu, Yunfeng. 2005. “Entrepreneurial Logics and the Evolution of Falun Gong.” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 44:173–185.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morais, Richard C. 2006. “Cracks in the Wall.” Forbes, February 27, 90–96.Google Scholar
Ownby, David. 2003. “A History for Falun Gong: Popular Religion and the Chinese State since the Ming Dynasty.” Nova Religio 6:223–243.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ownby, David. 2005. “The Falun Gong.” In Controversial New Religions, eds. Lewis, James R. and Petersen, Jesper Aagaard. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 195–214.Google Scholar
Ownby, David. 2008. Falun Gong and the Future of China. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Palmer, David A. 2007. Qigong Fever. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Penny, Benjamin. 2012. The Religion of Falun Gong. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Porter, Noah. 2003. Falun Gong in the United States: An Ethnographic Study. http://etd.fcla.edu/SF/SFE0000113/FalunGongInTheUS-NoahPorter-Thesis.pdf (Accessed on October 30, 2013).Google Scholar
Rahn, Patsy. 2002. “The Chemistry of a Conflict: The Chinese Government and the Falun Gong.” Terrorism and Political Violence 14:41–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schoof, Renee. 1999. “China Denies Detaining More Than 35,000 Falun Gong Activists.” http://www.lexisnexis.com.ezproxy.cul.columbia.edu/hottopics/lnacademic/?verb=sr&csi=7911 (Accessed on May 6, 2012).Google Scholar
Shue, Vivienne. [2004] 2010. “Legitimacy Crisis in China?” In Chinese Politics, eds. Gries, Peter Hays and Rosen, Stanley. New York, NY: Routledge, 41–68.Google Scholar
Soundofhope.org. 2010. “Weishenme chabo Falun Gong zhenxiang shi gongmin de quanli (Why interrupting a programme with truth on Falun Gong is a citizen's right).” http://soundofhope.org/programs/351/175345-1.asp (Accessed on May 18, 2012).Google Scholar
Stark, Rodney, and Bainbridge, Williams Sims. 1985. The Future of Religion. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thornton, Patricia M. 2003. “The New Cybersects.” In Chinese Society, eds. Perry, Elizabeth J. and Selden, Mark. London: RoutledgeCurzon, 251–275.Google Scholar
Tong, James. 2002. “An Organizational Analysis of the Falun Gong: Structure, Communications, Financing.” China Quarterly 171:636–660.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wallis, Roy. [1976] 1977. The Road to Total Freedom. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Weber, Max. [1922] 1993. The Sociology of Religion. Boston, MA: Beacon.Google Scholar
Weller, Robert P. 1994. Resistance, Chaos and Control in China: Taiping Rebels, Taiwanese Ghosts and Tiananmen. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wessinger, Catherine. 2000. “The Interacting Dynamics of Millennial Beliefs, Persecution, and Violence.” In Millennialism, Persecution, and Violence, ed. Wessinger, Catherine. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 3–39.Google Scholar
Wilkins, Leslie T. 1964. Social Deviance. London: Tavistock.Google Scholar
Xia Yun. 2010. “Stories from the April 25 Appeal.” http://en.minghui.org/html/articles/2010/4/28/116508.html (Accessed on May 18, 2012).Google Scholar
Xinhuanet. 2007. “China's Religious Believers Thrice Official Estimate.” http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2007-02/07/content_5707973.htm (Accessed on May 28, 2012).Google Scholar
Yang, Fenggang. 2012. Religion in China. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Ye Hao. 1999. “Youguan Falun Gong shifou you zuzhi de zhenxiang (Truth about the organizational nature of Falun Gong).” http://home.netvigator.com/~falunhk/zhenxiang2_gb.htm (Accessed on May 18, 2012).Google Scholar
Zhang Weiqing, and Gong, Qiao. 1999. Falun Gong chuangshi ren Li Hongzhi pingzhuan (Li Hongzhi: A critical biography of the founder of Falun Gong). Carle Place, NY: Mingjing.Google Scholar
Zhao, Dingxin. 2010. “Authoritarian State and Contentious Politics.” In Handbook of Politics, eds. Leicht, Kevin T. and Jenkins, J. Craig. New York, NY: Springer, 459–476.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zong Hairen. [2001] 2002. “Handling the Falungong Case.” Chinese Law and Government 35:53–72.Google Scholar