Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-2brh9 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-25T16:32:16.570Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Minority Candidates, Alternative Media, and Multiethnic America: Deracialization or Toggling?

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  13 November 2008

Christian Collet
Affiliation:
International Christian University, Tokyo. E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract

Conceptualizing a political world “beyond black and white” is a familiar scholarly refrain, but theoretical relics of bipolarity remain. The deracialization concept, a much-discussed phenomenon in American elections, is one example. Asian American campaigns provide an interesting case for testing the utility of deracialization in multicultural urban milieus, given the overwhelming tendency for such candidates to be elected from predominantly non-Asian constituencies. Looking in depth at two successful campaigns by Vietnamese Americans in Northern and Southern California, I argue for a broadened approach that can better account for changes in the American political mosaic—namely, increases in immigration occurring in some of the country's fastest growing regions and the availability of alternative media. I call this approach toggling. In this article, I outline the toggling strategy. I conclude by considering the impact of toggling on equality in the American democratic process and suggest some directions for future research.

Type
Research Article
Copyright
Copyright © American Political Science Association 2008

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Albritton, Robert B., Amedee, George, Grenell, Keenan, and Veal, Don-Terry. 1996. Deracialization and the new black politics. In Race, Politics and Governance in the United States, ed. Perry, Huey L.. Gainesville: University Press of Florida.Google Scholar
Ardrey, Saundra. 1993. Cleveland and the politics of resurgence: The search for effective political control. In Dilemmas of Black Politics, ed. Persons, Georgia. New York: HarperCollins.Google Scholar
Ardrey, Saundra C., and Nelson, William E.. 1990. The maturation of black power: The case of Cleveland. PS: Political Science and Politics 23 (2): 148–51.Google Scholar
Browning, Rufus, Marshall, Dale Rogers, and Tabb, David. 1984. Protest Is Not Enough. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Browning, Rufus, Marshall, Dale Rogers, and Tabb, David. 1990. Racial Politics in American Cities. New York: Longman.Google Scholar
Browning, Rufus P., Shafer, Holley, Rogers, John, and DeFever, Renatta. 2003. News Ghettos, Threats to Democracy and Other Myths about Ethnic Media. San Francisco: Public Research Institute.Google Scholar
Cain, Bruce E., and Kiewiet, D. Roderick. 1986. Minorities in California. Pasadena: Division of the Humanities and Social Science, California Institute of Technology.Google Scholar
Citrin, Jack, and Highton, Benjamin. 2002. How Race, Ethnicity and Immigration Shape the California Electorate. San Francisco: Public Policy Institute of California.Google Scholar
Collet, Christian. 2005. Bloc voting, polarization and the panethnic hypothesis: The case of Little Saigon. Journal of Politics 67 (3): 907–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Collet, Christian, and Furuya, Hiroko. 2005. “Transnationalism and Immigrant Incorporation: Considering the Protest-to-Politics Model in a Vietnamese American Community.” Presented at the Annual Meeting of the Western Political Science Association, Oakland, CA, March 17–19.Google Scholar
Davis, Marilyn, and Willingham, Alex. 1993. Andrew Young and the Georgia state elections of 1990. In Dilemmas of Black Politics, ed. Persons, Georgia. New York: HarperCollins.Google Scholar
Dawson, Michael C. 1995. Black counterpublic? Economic earthquakes, racial agenda(s), and black politics. In The Black Public Sphere, ed. Collective, Black Public Sphere. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Downs, Anthony. 1957. An Economic Theory of Democracy. New York: Harper and Row.Google Scholar
Espiritu, Yen Le. 1992. Asian American Panethnicity. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.Google Scholar
Fenno, Richard. 1978. Home Style. New York: HarperCollins.Google Scholar
Fong, Timothy. 1998. Why Ted Dang lost: An analysis of the 1994 mayoral race in Oakland, California. Journal of Asian American Studies 1 (2): 153–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
George, Herman Jr. 2004. Community development and the politics of deracialization: The case of Denver, Colorado, 1991–2003. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 594 (1): 143–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goodman, Leo. 1953. Ecological regressions and the behavior of individuals. American Sociological Review 18 (6): 663–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grofman, Bernard. 2000. A primer on racial bloc voting analysis. In The Real Y2K Problem: Census 2000 Data and Redistricting Technology, ed. Persily, Nathaniel. New York: Brennan Center for Justice.Google Scholar
Grofman, Bernard, and Barreto, Matt A.. 2008. A reply to Zax's (2002) Critique of Grofman and Migalski (1988) Double Equation Approaches to Ecological Inference When the Independent Variable is Misspecified. Sociological Methods and Research 36 (forthcoming).Google Scholar
Grofman, Bernard, Handley, Lisa, and Niemi, Richard G.. 1992. Minority Representation and the Quest for Voting Equality. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Henderson, Lenneal H. Jr. 1996. The governance of Kurt Schmoke as mayor of Baltimore. In Race, Politics and Governance in the United States, ed. Perry, Huey L.. Gainesville: University of Florida Press.Google Scholar
Hero, Rodney. 1987. The election of hispanics in city government: An examination of the election of Federico Pena as mayor of Denver. Western Political Quarterly 40 (1): 93105.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Herrnson, Paul S., and Stokes, Attiya Kai. 2003. “Politics at the Digital Divide: District Characteristics and Candidate Internet Use in State Legislative Campaigns.” Presented at the annual meeting of the Midwest Political Science Association, Chicago IL, April 3–6.Google Scholar
Jarvis, Sharon E., and Connaughton, Stacey L.. 2005. Audiences Implicadas e Ignoradas in the English and Spanish language 2002 Texas gubernatorial debates. Howard Journal of Communications 16 (2): 131–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones Ross, Felecia G. 1996. Democracy's textbook: A history of the black press in Ohio. In The Black Press in the Middle West; 1865–1985, ed. Suggs, Henry Lewis. Westport: Greenwood.Google Scholar
Kaufman, Karen. 2004. The Urban Voter. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kim, Claire. 1999. The racial triangulation of Asian Americans. Politics and Society 27: 105–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
King, Gary. 1997. A Solution to the Ecological Inference Problem. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
King, Gary, Rosen, Ori, and Tanner, Martin A.. 2004. Ecological Inference: New Methodological Strategies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Laguerre, Michel. 1998. Diasporic Citizenship. New York: St. Martin's.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lai, James S., Cho, Wendy K. Tam, Kim, Thomas P., and Takeda, Okiyoshi. 2001. Asian Pacific American campaigns, elections and public officials. PS: Political Science and Politics 34 (3): 611–17.Google Scholar
Larson, Stephanie Greco. 2006. Media and Minorities: The Politics of Race in News and Entertainment. Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield.Google Scholar
Lauderdale, Diane S., and Kestenbaum, Bert. 2000. Asian American identification by surname. Population Research and Policy Review 19 (3): 283300.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lien, Pei-te, Pinderhughes, Dianne M., Hardy-Fanta, Carol, and Sierra, Christine M.. 2007. The Voting Rights Act and the election of non-white officials. PS: Political Science and Politics 40 (3): 489–94.Google Scholar
Liu, Baodong. 2003. Deracialization and urban racial contexts. Urban Affairs Review 38 (4): 572–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Locke, Gary. 1999. The one hundred year journey: From houseboy to the governor's office. In The National Asian Pacific American Political Almanac, ed. Nakanishi, Don T., Lai, James S., and Kwok, Daphne. Los Angeles: UCLA Asian American Studies Center.Google Scholar
Logan, John, and Mollenkopf, John. 2003. “People and Politics in America's Big Cities.” Albany: Lewis Mumford Center for Comparative Urban and Regional Research.Google Scholar
McCormick, Joseph P. II, and Jones, Charles E.. 1993. The conceptualization of deracialization: Thinking through the dilemma. In Dilemmas of Black Politics, ed. Persons, Georgia A.. New York: Harper Collins.Google Scholar
McDermott, Monika L. 1998. Race and gender cues in low-information elections. Political Research Quarterly 51 (4): 895918.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mendelberg, Tali. 2001. The Race Card. Princeton: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Metz, David Haywood, and Tate, Katherine. 1995. The color of urban campaigns. In Classifying by Race, ed. Peterson, Paul. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Miller, Sally J. 1987. The Ethnic Press in the United States. Westport: Greenwood.Google Scholar
Moscoso, Eunice. 2006. “Racist remarks by public officials are nothing new, analysts say.” San Francisco Chronicle. August 19.Google Scholar
Mueller, John. 1970. Choosing among 133 candidates. Public Opinion Quarterly 30 (3): 395402.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mumford Center. 2001. “Ethnic Diversity Grows, Neighborhood Integration Lags: A Report.” Albany: The Lewis Mumford Center.Google Scholar
Muñoz, Carlos Jr., and Henry, Charles P.. 1990. Coalition politics in San Antonio and Denver. In Racial Politics in American Cities, eds. Browning, Rufus, Marshall, Dale Rogers, and Tabb, David. White Plains, NY: Longman.Google Scholar
Nelson, William E. Jr., and Meranto, Philip J.. 1977. Electing Black Mayors. Columbus: Ohio University Press.Google Scholar
New America Media. 2005. “Ethnic Media in America: The Giant Hidden in Plain Sight”. http://www.ncmonline.com/polls/full_em_poll.pdf Accessed October 4, 2006.Google Scholar
Nguyễn, Huy Ngoc. 1998. Tên Họ Ngủời Việt Nam. Nguyen Ngoc Huy Foundation of Mekong-Tynan.Google Scholar
Norris, Pippa. 2000. A Virtuous Circle: Political Communications in Postindustrial Societies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oden, Roger K. 1996. The election of Carol Moseley-Braun in Illinois. In Race, Politics and Governance in the United States, ed. Perry, Huey L.. Gainesville: University of Florida Press.Google Scholar
Park, Robert. 1922. The Immigrant Press and Its Control. St. Clair Shores: Scholarly.Google Scholar
Perry, Huey L. 1990. Symposium: Recent advances in black electoral politics. PS: Political Science and Politics 23 (2): 141–62.Google Scholar
Perry, Huey L. 1991. Deracialization as an analytical construct in American urban politics. Urban Affairs Quarterly 27: 181–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Perry, Huey L., ed. 1996. Race, Politics and Governance in the United States. Gainesville: University of Florida Press.Google Scholar
Persons, Georgia, ed. 1993. Dilemmas of Black Politics. New York: HarperCollins.Google Scholar
Rodriguez, Gregory. 1998. “Minority Leader.” New Republic, October 19.Google Scholar
Saito, Leland. 1998. Race and Politics. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.Google Scholar
Schexnider, Alvin J. 1990. The politics of pragmatism: An analysis of the 1989 gubernatorial election in Virginia. PS: Political Science and Politics 23 (2): 154–56.Google Scholar
Schexnider, Alvin J. 1996. Analyzing the Wilder administration through the construct of deracialization politics. In Race, Politics and Governance in the United States, ed. Perry, Huey L.. Gainesville: University of Florida Press.Google Scholar
Segal, Adam J. 2004. “Bikini Politics.” Report of the Hispanic Voter Project, Johns Hopkins University. http://advanced.jhu.edu/government/hvp.Google Scholar
Shah, Hemant, and Thornton, Michael C.. 2004. Newspaper Coverage of Interethnic Conflict: Competing Visions of America. Newbury Park: Sage.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, Robert C. 1990. Recent elections and black politics: The maturation or death of black politics? PS: Political Science and Politics 23 (2): 160–62.Google Scholar
Sonenshein, Raphael. 1993. Politics in Black and White. Princeton: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sonenshein, Raphael. 2004. The City at Stake. Princeton: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Squires, Catherine R. 2002. Redefining the black public sphere: An alternative vocabulary for multiple public spheres. Communication Theory 12 (4): 446–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Starks, Robert. 1991. A commentary and response to “Exploring the Meaning and Implications of Deracialization in African-American Urban Politics.” Urban Affairs Quarterly 27 (2): 216–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stein, Robert M., Ulbig, Stacy G., and Post, Stephanie Shirley. 2005. Voting for minority candidates in multiracial/multiethnic communities. Urban Affairs Review 41 (2): 157–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stimson, James A., MacKuen, Michael B., and Erikson, Robert. 1995. Dynamic representation. American Political Science Review 89 (3): 543–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Subervi-Velez, Federico A. 1986. The mass media and ethnic assimilation and pluralism: A review and research proposal with special focus on hispanics. Communication Research 13 (1): 7196.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Summers, Mary, and Klinkner, Philip A.. 1996. The election and governance of John Daniels as mayor of New Haven. In Race, Politics and Governance in the United States, ed. Perry, Huey L.. Gainesville: University of Florida Press.Google Scholar
Tam Cho, Wendy K. 2002. Tapping motives and dynamics behind campaign contributions: Insights from the Asian American case. American Politics Research 30 (4): 347–83.Google Scholar
Tam Cho, Wendy K. 2003. Contagion effects and ethnic contribution networks. American Journal of Political Science 47 (2): 368–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tam Cho, Wendy K., and Cain, Bruce E.. 2001. Asian Americans as the median voters: An exploration of attitudes and voting patterns on ballot initiatives. In Asian Americans and Politics, ed. Chang, Gordon H.. Washington and Stanford: Woodrow Wilson Center/Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Tarrow, Sidney. 2005. The New Transnational Activism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thompson, J. Philip. 1990. David Dinkins' victory in New York City: The decline of the Democratic Party organization and the strengthening of black politics. PS: Political Science and Politics 23 (2): 145–48.Google Scholar
Thornburg v. Gingles. 1986. 478 U.S. 30.Google Scholar
Tolbert, Caroline J., and McNeal, Ramona S.. 2003. Unraveling the effects of the Internet on political participation? Political Research Quarterly 56 (2): 175–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Underwood, Katherine. 1997. Ethnicity is not enough: Latino-led multiracial coalitions in Los Angeles. Urban Affairs Review 33 (1): 327.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
United States Department of Commerce. 2002. “A Nation Online: How Americans are Expanding their Use of the Internet.” http://www.ntia.doc.gov/ntiahome/dn/nationonline_020502.htm Accessed October 9, 2006.Google Scholar
Viswanath, K., and Aurora, Pamela. 2000. Ethnic media in the United States: An essay on their role in integration, assimilation and social control. Mass Communication and Society 3 (1): 3956.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wang, L. Ling-chi. 1996. Exclusion and fragmentation in ethnic politics: Chinese Americans in urban politics. In The Politics of Minority Coalitions, ed. Rich, Wilbur C.. Westport: Praeger.Google Scholar
Warren, Christopher L., Corbett, John G., and Stack, John F.. 1990. Hispanic ascendancy and tripartite politics in Miami. In Racial Politics in American Cities, ed. Browning, Rufus, Marshall, Dale Rogers, and Tabb, David. White Plains, NY: Longman.Google Scholar
Wattenberg, Martin. 1991. The Rise of Candidate Centered Politics. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wolfinger, Raymond E. 1974. The Politics of Progress. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.Google Scholar
Word, David L., and Perkins, R. Colby Jr. 1996. “Building a Spanish Surname List for the 1990s: A New Approach to an Old Problem.” Technical Working Paper #13. Washington: U.S. Census Bureau, Population Division.Google Scholar
Wright-Austin, S.D., and Middleton, R.T. IV. 2004. The limitations of the deracialization concept in the 2001 Los Angeles mayoral election. Political Research Quarterly 57 (2): 283–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wu, H. Denis, and Lee, Tien-Tsung. 2005. The submissive, the calculated, and the American dream: Coverage of Asian American political candidates in the 1990s. Howard Journal of Communication 16 (3): 225–41.Google Scholar
Yu, Judy, and Yuan, Grace T.. 2000. Lessons learned from the “Locke for Governor” campaign. In Asian Americans and Politics, ed. Gordon H. Chang. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar