Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gbm5v Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-23T05:18:42.624Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

A wake up call for urinary schistosomiasis: reconciling research effort with public health importance

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  23 July 2009

D. ROLLINSON
D. ROLLINSON*
Affiliation:
Wolfson Wellcome Biomedical Laboratories, Department of Zoology, Natural History Museum, London SW7 5BD, UK
*
*Tel: +44 (0)20 7942 5181. E-mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Summary

This review considers the current status of urinary schistosomiasis, caused by infection with Schistosoma haematobium, and argues that greater research effort and focus are needed to improve understanding of this neglected tropical disease (NTD). The inappropriateness of relying solely on data concerning the much more extensively studied intestinal form of schistosomiasis caused by S. mansoni is highlighted. The current lack of genome and transcriptome information for S. haematobium is directly hindering further targeted research and must be quickly rectified. Recent molecular phylogenies caution the expectation of similarities between schistosome species and highlight the close relationships of species within the S. haematobium group. Treatment, current and prospective drugs and vaccines, together with diagnosis are considered, highlighting the differences associated with urinary schistosomiasis. This infection has a significant and specific impact on the urino-genital system and has a strong association with bladder cancer, leading to severe and chronic morbidity. There is a clear need for new clinical initiatives in this area to better quantify the disease burden. Furthermore, emerging associations with HIV and other pathogens need to be closely monitored. Research is urgently needed to improve current knowledge in order to develop the next generation of control tools.

Keywords

urinary schistosomiasisSchistosoma haematobiumdrugsvaccinesbladder cancerHIVneglected tropical diseases
Type
Research Article
Information
Parasitology , Volume 136 , Special Issue 12: Special Centenary Issue – Parasitology 1908–2008 , October 2009 , pp. 1593 - 1610
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2009

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Abbasi, I., King, C. H., Sturrock, R. F., Kariuki, C., Muchiri, E. and Hamburger, J. (2007). Differentiation of Schistosoma haematobium from related schistosomes by PCR amplifying an inter-repeat sequence. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 76, 950–955.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Abol-Enein, H. (2008). Infection: Is it a cause of bladder cancer? Scandinavian Journal of Urology and Nephrology 42 (Suppl. 218), 79–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Akinwale, O. P., Oliveira, G. C., Ajayi, M. B., Akande, D. O., Oyebadejo, S. and Okereke, K. C. (2008). Squamous cell abnormalities in exfoliated cells from the urine of Schistosoma haematobium-infected adults in a rural fishing community in Nigeria. World Health & Population 10, 18–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Al-Qahtani, A. A. and Aly, M. S. (2007). Comparison of genetic changes in transitional and squamous bilharzial-related bladder cancers using flourescence in situ hybridization. International Journal of Cancer Research 3, 127–133.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aragon, A. D., Imani, R. A., Blackburn, V. R., Cupit, P. M., Melman, S. D., Goronga, T., Webb, T., Loker, E. S. and Cunningham, C. (2009). Towards an understanding of the mechanism of action of praziquantel. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology 164, 57–65.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Armengol, G., Eissa, S., Lozano, J. J., Shoman, S., Sumoy, L., Caballín, M. R. and Knuutila, S. (2007). Genomic imbalances in Schistosoma-associated and non-Schistosoma-associated bladder carcinoma. An array comparative genomic hybridization analysis. Cancer Genetics and Cytogenetics 177, 16–19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ayele, B., Erko, B., Legesse, M., Hailu, A. and Medhin, G. (2008). Evaluation of circulating cathodic antigen (CCA) strip for diagnosis of urinary schistosomiasis in Hassoba school children, Afar, Ethiopia. Parasite 15, 69–75.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bahrami, S., Alatassi, H., Slone, S. P. and O'Connor, D. M. (2006). Tubal gestation and schistosomiasis: A case report. Journal of Reproductive Medicine for the Obstetrician and Gynecologist 51, 595–598.Google ScholarPubMed
Balog, C. I., Hensbergen, P. J., Derks, R., Verweij, J. J., van Dam, G. J., Vennervald, B. J., Deelder, A. M., and Mayboroda, O. A. (2009). Novel automated biomarker discovery work flow for urinary peptidomics. Clinical Chemistry 55, 117–25.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barsoum, R. S. (2003). End-stage renal disease in North Africa. Kidney International Supplement 63, S111–S114.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bedwani, R., Renganathan, E., El Kwhsky, F., Braga, C., Abu Seif, H. H., Abul Azm, T., Zaki, A. and La Vecchia, C. (1998). Schistosomiasis and the risk of bladder cancer in Alexandria, Egypt. British Journal of Cancer 77, 1186–1189.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bergquist, N. R., Leonardo, L. R. and Mitchell, G. F. (2005). Vaccine-linked chemotherapy: Can schistosomiasis control benefit from an integrated approach? Trends in Parasitology 21, 112–117.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bergquist, R. (2008). A century of schistosomiasis research. Acta Tropica 108, 65–68.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bichler, K.-H., Feil, G., Zumbrägel, A., Eipper, E. and Dyballa, S. (2001). Schistosomiasis: A critical review. Current Opinion in Urology 11, 97–101.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boisier, P. (2000). Ultrasonographic investigation of schistosomiasis-related morbidity: Value for community-based study, epidemiology and individual diagnosis [Diagnostic echographique de la morbidite liee a la schistosomose a Schistosoma mansoni et a Schistosoma haematobium: Interet epidemiologique, interet individuel]. Medecine Tropicale 60, 395–401.Google Scholar
Borrmann, S., Szlezák, N., Faucher, J.-F., Matsiegui, P.-B., Neubauer, R., Binder, R. K., Lell, B. and Kremsner, P. G. (2001). Artesunate and praziquantel for the treatment of Schistosoma haematobium infections: A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study. Journal of Infectious Diseases 184, 1363–1366.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bosompem, K. M., Bentum, I. A., Otchere, J., Anyan, W. K., Brown, C. A., Osada, Y., Takeo, S., Kojima, S. and Ohta, N. (2004 a). Infant schistosomiasis in Ghana: A survey in an irrigation community. Tropical Medicine and International Health 9, 917–922.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bosompem, K. M., Owusu, O., Okanla, E. O. and Kojima, S. (2004 b). Applicability of a monoclonal antibody-based dipstick in diagnosis of urinary schistosomiasis in the Central Region of Ghana. Tropical Medicine and International Health 9, 991–996.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boulanger, D., Warter, A., Sellin, B., Lindner, V., Pierce, R. J., Chippaux, J.-P. and Capron, A. (1999). Vaccine potential of a recombinant glutathione S-transferase cloned from Schistosoma haematobium in primates experimentally infected with an homologous challenge. Vaccine 17, 319–326. doi: 10.1016/S0264-410X(98)00202-3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brown, D. S. (1980). Freshwater Snails of Africa and Their Medical Importance. Taylor & Francis, London, UK.Google Scholar
Brown, M., Kizza, M., Watera, C., Quigley, M. A., Rowland, S., Hughes, P., Whitworth, J. A. G. and Elliott, A. M. (2004). Helminth infection is not associated with faster progression of HIV disease in coinfected adults in Uganda. Journal of Infectious Diseases 190, 1869–1879.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caffrey, C. R. (2007). Chemotherapy of schistosomiasis: present and future. Current Opinion in Chemical Biology 11, 433–439.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Capron, A., Capron, M. and Riveau, G. (2002). Vaccine development against schistosomiasis from concepts to clinical trials. British Medical Bulletin 62, 139–148.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Capron, A. and Dessaint, J.-P. (1992). Immunologic aspects of schistosomiasis. Annual Review of Medicine 43, 209–218.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Capron, A., Riveau, G., Capron, M. and Trottein, F. (2005). Schistosomes: The road from host-parasite interactions to vaccines in clinical trials. Trends in Parasitology 21, 143–149. doi: 10.1016/j.pt.2005.01.003.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cioli, D., and Pica-Mattoccia, L. (2003). Praziquantel. Parasitology Research 90, S3–S9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clements, A. C. A., Brooker, S., Nyandindi, U., Fenwick, A. and Blair, L. (2008). Bayesian spatial analysis of a national urinary schistosomiasis questionnaire to assist geographic targeting of schistosomiaisis in Tanzania, East Africa. International Journal for Parasitology 38, 401–415.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clennon, J. A., King, C. H., Muchiri, E. M. and Kitron, U. (2007). Hydrological modelling of snail dispersal patterns in Msambweni, Kenya and potential resurgence of Schistosoma haematobium transmission. Parasitology 134, 683–693.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clennon, J. A., Mungai, P. L., Muchiri, E. M., King, C. H. and Kitron, U. (2006). Spatial and temporal variations in local transmission of Schistosoma haematobium in Msambweni, Kenya. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 75, 1034–1041.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Colley, D. G. and Secor, W. E. (2007). A schistosomiasis research agenda. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 1, 1–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Da'Dara, A. A., Lautsch, N., Dudek, T., Novitsky, V., Lee, T.-H., Essex, M. and Harn, D. A. (2006). Helminth infection suppresses T-cell immune response to HIV-DNA-based vaccine in mice. Vaccine 24, 5211–5219.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Danso-Appiah, A., Utzinger, J., Liu, J. and Olliaro, P. (2008). Drugs for treating urinary schistosomiasis. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (3), art. no. CD000053.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
De Clercq, D., Vercruysse, J., Kongs, A., Verlé, P., Dompnier, J. P. and Faye, P. C. (2002). Efficacy of artesunate and praziquantel in Schistosoma haematobium infected schoolchildren. Acta Tropica 82, 61–66.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Doenhoff, M. J. and Pica-Mattoccia, L. (2006). Praziquantel for the treatment of schistosomiasis: Its use for control in areas with endemic disease and prospects for drug resistance. Expert Review of Anti-Infective Therapy 4, 199–210.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Doenhoff, M. J., Cioli, D. and Utzinger, J. (2008). Praziquantel: mechanisms of action, resistance and new derivatives for schistosomiasis. Current Opinion in Infectious Diseases 21, 659–667.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ebert, W. (1987). Incidence and significance of bilharziasis in the Republic of Mozambique | [Untersuchungen zur Häufigkeit und Bedeutung der Bilharziose in der Volksrepublik Moçambique.]. Zeitschrift für Urologie und Nephrologie 80, 625–628.Google ScholarPubMed
El Amir, A. (2008). Evaluation of Schistosoma haematobium 27–29 kDa antigen for immunodiagnosis of schistosomiasis haematobium. Journal of the Egyptian Society of Parasitology 38, 435–451.Google ScholarPubMed
El Awady, M. K., Mohammad, M. A., Shousha, W.GH., El-Mahdy, E.-S. M. and Khalil, M. I. (2003). Potentially modulated genes in bladder cancer. Cancer Molecular Biology 10, 1909–1922.Google Scholar
Elliott, A. M., Mawa, P. A., Joseph, S., Namujju, P. B., Kizza, M., Nakiyingi, J. S., Watera, C. and Whitworth, J. A. G. (2003). Associations between helminth infection and CD4+ T cell count, viral load and cytokine responses in HIV-1-infected Ugandan adults. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 97, 103–108.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
El-Mahgoub, S. (1982). Pelvic schistosomiasis and infertility. International Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics 20, 201–206.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
El-Meghawry El-Kenawy, A., El-Kott, A. F., Hamed, S. M. and Kuroki, M. (2006). Prognostic value of carcinoma-associated antigen MK-1 in urinary bladder carcinoma. International Journal of Biological Markers 21, 170–174.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Engels, D., Chitsulo, L., Montresor, A., Savioli, L. (2002). The global epidemiological situation of schistosomiasis and new approaches to control and research. Acta Tropica 82, 139–146.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Erikstrup, C., Kallestrup, P., Zinyama-Gutsire, R. B. L., Gomo, E., Van Dam, G. J., Deelder, A. M., Butterworth, A. E. and Ullum, H. (2008). Schistosomiasis and infection with human immunodeficiency virus 1 in rural Zimbabwe: Systemic inflammation during co-infection and after treatment for schistosomiasis. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 79, 331–337.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ernould, J.-C., Garba, A., Labbo, R., Kaman Kaman, A., Sidiki, A., Djibrilla, A. and Chippaux, J.-P. (2004). Heterogeneity of Schistosoma haematobium transmission in irrigated fields [Hétérogénéité de la transmission de Schistosoma haematobium dans les périmètres irrigués du Niger]. Bulletin de la Societe de Pathologie Exotique, 97, 19–23.Google ScholarPubMed
Felix, A. S., Soliman, A. S., Khaled, H., Zaghloul, M. S., Banerjee, M., El-Baradie, M., El-Kalawy, M. and Wilson, M. L. (2008). The changing patterns of bladder cancer in Egypt over the past 26 years. Cancer Causes and Control 19, 421–429.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fenwick, A., Keiser, J. and Utzinger, J. (2006). Epidemiology, burden and control of schistosomiasis with particular consideration to past and current treatment trends. Drugs of the Future 31, 413–425.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fontanet, A. L., Woldemichael, T., Sahlu, T., Van Dam, G. J., Messele, T., Rinke de Wit, T., Masho, W. and Van Lieshout, L. (2000). Epidemiology of HIV and Schistosoma mansoni infections among sugar-estate residents in Ethiopia. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 94, 145–155.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
French, M. D., Rollinson, D., Basáñez, M.-G., Mgeni, A. F., Khamis, I. S., Stothard, J. R. (2007). School-based control of urinary schistosomiasis on Zanzibar, Tanzania: Monitoring micro-haematuria with reagent strips as a rapid urological assessment. Journal of Pediatric Urology 3, 364–368.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Friedman, J. F., Mital, P., Kanzaria, H. K., Olds, G. R. and Kurtis, J. D. (2007). Schistosomiasis and pregnancy. Trends in Parasitology 23, 159–164.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Garba, M., Almoustapha, T., Garba, A. and Nouhou, H. (2004). Extra uterine pregnancy associated with a tubal schistosomiasis due to Schistosoma haematobium, a case report from Niger | [Grossesse extra utérine et schistosomose tubaire due á Schistosoma haematobium. Á propos d'un cas au Niger]. Bulletin de la Societe de Pathologie Exotique 97, 41–42.Google ScholarPubMed
Gerold, M., Werner, W. and Sperschneider, H. (1999). Schistomosiasis following renal transplantation: A case report [Bilharziose nach Nierentransplantation – Vorstellung des Krankheitsbildes an hand eines Fallberichtes]. Transplantationsmedizin: Organ der Deutschen Transplantationsgesellschaft 11, 251–260.Google Scholar
Hagan, P. and Sharaf, O. (2003). Schistosomiasis vaccines. Expert Opinion on Biological Therapy 3, 1271–1278.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hagan, P., Appleton, C. C., Coles, G. C., Kusel, J. R. and Tchuem-Tchuenté, L.-A. (2004). Schistosomiasis control: Keep taking the tablets. Trends in Parasitology 20, 92–97.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hamburger, J., Hoffman, O., Kariuki, H. C., Muchiri, E. M., Ouma, J. H., Koech, D. K., Sturrock, R. F. and King, C. H. (2004). Large-scale, polymerase chain reaction-based surveillance of Schistosoma haematobium DNA in snails from transmission sites in coastal Kenya: A new tool for studying the dynamics of snail infection. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 71, 765–773.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hameed, D. A., Abdel Raheem, A. M., Mosad, E., Hammouda, H. M., Kamel, N. A. and Abdel Aziz, M. A. (2008). Bcl-XL and Bcl-2 expression in bilharzial squamous cell carcinoma of the urinary bladder: which protein is prognostic? Urology 72, 374–378.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hamilton, J. V., Klinkert, M. and Doenhoff, M. J. (1998). Diagnosis of schistosomiasis: Antibody detection, with notes on parasitological and antigen detection methods. Parasitology 117 (Suppl.), S41–S57.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hammam, O. A., Aziz, A. A., Roshdy, M. S. and Abdel Hadi, A. M. (2008). Possible role of Cyclooxygenase-2 in schistosomal and non-schistosomal-associated bladder cancer. MedGenMed Medscape General Medicine 10, art. no. 60.Google ScholarPubMed
Helling-Giese, G. (1997). Female genital schistosomiasis (FGS). Literature review and two case presentations [Die genitale Bilharziose der Frau. Literaturubersicht und zwei Fallbeschreibungen]. Geburtshilfe und Frauenheilkunde 57, 136–140.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Helling-Giese, G., Kjetland, E. F., Gundersen, S. G., Poggensee, G., Richter, J., Krantz, I. and Feldmeier, H. (1996). Schistosomiasis in women: Manifestations in the upper reproductive tract. Acta Tropica 62, 225–238.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heyns, C. F. and Bornman, M. S. (2008). Men's Health in Africa. Part 1: Reproductive urogenital diseases and human immunodeficiency virus infection. Journal of Men's Health 5, 66–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heyns, C. F. and van der Merwe, A. (2008). Bladder cancer in Africa. The Canadian Journal of Urology 15, 3899–3908.Google ScholarPubMed
Hodder, S. L., Mahmoud, A. A. F., Sorenson, K., Weinert, D. M., Stein, R. L., Ouma, J. H., Koech, D. and King, C. H. (2000). Predisposition to urinary tract epithelial metaplasia in Schistosoma haematobium infection. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 63, 133–138.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hoffmann, H. and Bauerfeind, I. (2003). High tissue egg burden mechanically impairing the tubal motility in genital schistosomiasis of the female. Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica 82, 970–971.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hosseinipour, M. C., Napravnik, S., Joaki, G., Gama, S., Mbeye, N., Banda, B., Martinson, F. and Cohen, M. S. (2007). HIV and parasitic infection and the effect of treatment among adult outpatients in Malawi. Journal of Infectious Diseases 195, 1278–1282.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Inyang-Etoh, P. C., Ejezie, G. C., Useh, M. F. and Inyang-Etoh, E. C. (2009). Efficacy of a combination of praziquantel and artesunate in the treatment of urinary schistosomiasis in Nigeria. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 103, 38–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Joseph, S., Jones, F. M., Laidlaw, M. E., Mohamed, G., Mawa, P. A., Namujju, P. B., Kizza, M. and Elliott, A. M. (2004). Impairment of the Schistosoma mansoni-specific immune responses elicited by treatment with praziquantel in Ugandans with HIV-1 coinfection. Journal of Infectious Diseases 190, 613–618.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jung, M., Lee, K., Kim, H. and Park, M. (2004). Recent advances in artemisinin and its derivatives as antimalarial and antitumor agents. Current Medicinal Chemistry 11, 1265–1284.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kabatereine, N. B., Vennervald, B. J., Ouma, J. H., Kemijumbi, J., Butterworth, A. E., Dunne, D. W. and Fulford, A. J. (1999). Adult resistance to schistosomiasis mansoni: age-dependence of reinfection remains constant in communities with diverse exposure patterns. Parasitology 118, 101–105.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kallestrup, P., Zinyama, R., Gomo, E., Butterworth, A. E., Van Dam, G. J., Erikstrup, C. and Ullum, H. (2005). Schistosomiasis and HIV-1 infection in rural Zimbabwe: Implications of coinfection for excretion of eggs. Journal of Infectious Diseases 191, 1311–1320.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kane, R. A., Stothard, J. R., Emery, A. M. and Rollinson, D. (2008). Molecular characterization of freshwater snails in the genus Bulinus: a role for barcodes? Parasites and Vectors 1, 15 PMID 18544153.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Karanja, D. M. S., Boyer, A. E., Strand, M., Colley, D. G., Nahlen, B. L., Ouma, J. H. and Secor, W. E. (1998). Studies on schistosomiasis in western Kenya: II. Efficacy of praziquantel for treatment of schistosomiasis in persons coinfected with human immunodeficiency virus-1. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 59, 307–311.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Karanja, D. M. S., Hightower, A. W., Colley, D. G., Mwinzi, P. N. M., Galil, K., Andove, J. and Secor, W. E. (2002). Resistance to reinfection with Schistosoma mansoni in occupationally exposed adults and effect of HIV-1 co-infection on susceptibility: a longitudinal study. Lancet 360, 592–592.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Katz, N. (2008). The discovery of Schistosomiasis mansoni in Brazil. Acta Tropica 108, 69–71.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Keiser, J. and Utzinger, J. (2007). Artemisinins and synthetic trioxolanes in the treatment of helminth infections. Current Opinion in Infectious Diseases 20, 605–612.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Khaled, H. M., Gad El-Mawla, N., El-Said, A., Hamza, M.-R., Gaafar, R., El-Attar, I., Abu Rabia, A. and Magrath, I. (1996). Combination chemotherapy for advanced bilharzial bladder carcinoma. Annals of Oncology 7, 751–754.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kim, B., Robertson, S. J., Belanger, E. C. and Mai, K. T. (2008). Invasive low-grade urothelial carcinoma in a bladder biopsy associated with high-stage disease and masquerading as schistosomiasis. The Canadian Journal of Urology 15, 3933–3935.Google Scholar
King, C. H. (2002). Ultrasound monitoring of structural urinary tract disease in Schistosoma haematobium infection. Memorias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz 97 (Suppl. 1), 149–152.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
King, C. H., Dickman, K. and Tisch, D. J. (2005). Reassessment of the cost of chronic helmintic infection: A meta-analysis of disability-related outcomes in endemic schistosomiasis. Lancet 365, 1561–1569.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kitinya, J. N., Laurèn, P. A., Eshleman, L. J., Paljärvi, L. and Tanaka, K. (1986). The incidence of squamous and transitional cell carcinomas of the urinary bladder in northern Tanzania in areas of high and low levels of endemic Schistosoma haematobium infection. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 80, 935–939.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kjetland, E. F., Kurewa, E. N., Ndhlovu, P. D., Midzi, N., Gwanzura, L., Mason, P. R., Gomo, E. and Gundersen, S. G. (2008 a). Female genital schistosomiasis – a differential diagnosis to sexually transmitted disease: Genital itch and vaginal discharge as indicators of genital Schistosoma haematobium morbidity in a cross-sectional study in endemic rural Zimbabwe. Tropical Medicine and International Health 13, 1509–1517.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kjetland, E. F., Mduluza, T., Ndhlovu, P. D., Gomo, E., Gwanzura, L., Midzi, N., Mason, P. R. and Gundersen, S. G. (2006 a). Genital schistosomiasis in women: a clinical 12-month in vivo study following treatment with praziquantel. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 100, 740–752.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kjetland, E. F., Ndhlovu, P. D., Gomo, E., Mduluza, T., Midzi, N., Gwanzura, L., Mason, P. R. and Gundersen, S. G. (2006 b). Association between genital schistosomiasis and HIV in rural Zimbabwean women. AIDS 20, 593–600.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kjetland, E. F., Ndhlovu, P. D., Kurewa, E. N., Midzi, N., Gomo, E., Mduluza, T., Friis, H. and Gundersen, S. G. (2008 b). Prevention of gynecologic contact bleeding and genital sandy patches by childhood anti-schistosomal treatment. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 79, 79–83.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kjetland, E. F., Ndhlovu, P. D., Mduluza, T., Gomo, E., Gwanzura, L., Mason, P. R., Kurewa, E. N. and Gundersen, S. G. (2005). Simple clinical manifestations of genital Schistosoma haematobium infection in rural Zimbabwean women. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 72, 311–319.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Koukounari, A., Fenwick, A., Whawell, S., Kabatereine, N. B., Kazibwe, F., Tukahebwa, E. M., Stothard, J. R. and Webster, J. P. (2006). Morbidity indicators of Schistosoma mansoni: Relationship between infection and anemia in Ugandan schoolchildren before and after praziquantel and albendazole chemotherapy. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 75, 278–286.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Labbo, R., Ernould, J.-C., Djibrilla, A., Garba, A. and Chippaux, J.-P. (2008). Focusing of Schistosoma haematobium transmission in irrigated perimeters of the Niger valley (Niger): importance of malacological factors [Focalisation de la transmission de Schistosoma haematobium au sein des périmètres irrigués de la vallée du Niger (Niger): importance des facteurs malacologiques]. Revue d'Epidemiologie et de Sante Publique 56, 3–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Laurent, S. A.-L., Boissier, J., Coslédan, F., Gornitzka, H., Robert, A. and Meunier, B. (2008). Synthesis of “Trioxaquantel”® derivatives as potential new antischistosomal drugs. European Journal of Organic Chemistry 5, 895–913.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lawn, S. D., Karanja, D. M. S., Mwinzi, P., Andove, J., Colley, D. G., Folks, T. M. and Secor, W. E. (2000). The effect of treatment of schistosomiasis on blood plasma HIV-1 RNA concentration in coinfected individuals. AIDS 14, 2437–2443.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Laxman, V. V., Adamson, B. and Mahmood, T. (2008). Recurrent ectopic pregnancy due to Schistosoma hematobium. Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology 28, 461–462.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lebens, M., Sun, J.-B., Czerkinsky, C. and Holmgren, J. (2004). Current status and future prospects for a vaccine against schistosomiasis. Expert Review of Vaccines 3, 315–328.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leutscher, P., Ravaoalimalala, V. E., Raharisolo, C., Ramarakoto, C. E., Rasendramino, M., Raobelison, A., Vennervald, B. and Feldmeier, H. (1998). Clinical findings in female genital schistosomiasis in Madagascar. Tropical Medicine and International Health 3, 327–332.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leutscher, P. D. C., Høst, E. and Reimert, C. M. (2009). Semen quality in Schistosoma haematobium infected men in Madagascar. Acta Tropica 109, 41–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leutscher, P. D. C., Ramarakoto, C.-E., Hoffmann, S., Jensen, J. S., Ramaniraka, V., Randrianasolo, B., Raharisolo, C. and Christensen, N. (2008). Coexistence of urogenital schistosomiasis and sexually transmitted infection in women and men living in an area where Schistosoma haematobium is endemic. Clinical Infectious Diseases 47, 775–782.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leutscher, P. D. C., Reimert, C. M., Vennervald, B. J., Ravaoalimalala, V. E., Ramarakoto, C. E., Serieye, J., Raobelison, A. and Esterre, P. (2000). Morbidity assessment in urinary schistosomiasis infection through ultrasonography and measurement of Eosinophil Cationic Protein (ECP) in urine. Tropical Medicine and International Health 5, 88–93.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Liu, F., Chen, P., Cui, S.-J., Wang, Z.-Q. and Han, Z.-G. (2008). SjTPdb: Integrated transcriptome and proteome database and analysis platform for Schistosoma japonicum. BMC Genomics 9, art. no. 304.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lloyd-Smith, J. O., Poss, M. and Grenfell, B. T. (2008). HIV-1/parasite co-infection and the emergence of new parasite strains. Parasitology 135, 795–806.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lockyer, A. E., Olson, P. D., Østergaard, P., Rollinson, D., Johnston, D. A., Attwood, S. W., Southgate, V. R., Horak, P., Snyder, S. D., Le, T. H., Agatsuma, T., McManus, D. P., Carmichael, A. C., Naem, S. and Littlewood, D. T. J. (2003). The phylogeny of the Schistosomatidae based on three genes with emphasis on the interrelationships of Schistosoma Weinland, 1858. Parasitology 126, 203–224.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Loker, E. S. and Brant, S. V. (2006). Diversification, dioecy and dimorphism in schistosomes. Trends in Parasitology 22, 521–528.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Losada, S., Chacón, N., Colmenares, C., Bermúdez, H., Lorenzo, A., Pointier, J. P., Theron, A. and Noya, O. (2005). Schistosoma: Cross-reactivity and antigenic community among different species. Experimental Parasitology 111, 182–190.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Malik, M. O. A., Veress, B., Daoud, E. H. and El Hassan, A. M. (1975). Pattern of bladder cancer in the Sudan and its relation to schistosomiasis. A study of 255 vesical carcinomas. Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 78, 219–223.Google ScholarPubMed
McManus, D. P. and Loukas, A. (2008). Current status of vaccines for schistosomiasis. Clinical Microbiology Reviews 21, 225–242.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marshall, I. (1987). Experimental chemotherapy. In The Biology of Schistosomes, from Genes to Latrines (ed. Rollinson, D. and Simpson, A. J. G.), pp. 399–430. Academic Press, London, UK.Google Scholar
Midzi, N., Butterworth, A. E., Mduluza, T., Munyati, S., Deelder, A. M. and van Dam, G. J. (2009). Use of circulating cathodic antigen strips for the diagnosis of urinary schistosomiasis. Transactions of the Royal Society Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 103, 45–51.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mohsen, M. A. A., Hassan, A. A. M., El-Sewedy, S. M., Aboul-Azm, T., Maganitti, C., Airoldi, L. (1999). Biomonotoring of N-nitroso compounds, nitrite and nitrate in the urine of Egyptian bladder cancer patients with or without Schistosoma haematobium infection. International Journal of Cancer 82, 789–794.3.0.CO;2-C>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Molyneux, D. H., Hotez, P. J., Fenwick, A., Newman, R. D., Greenwood, B. and Sachs, J. (2009). Neglected tropical diseases and the Global Fund. Lancet 373, 296–297.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morice, P., Chapron, C., Vacher Lavenu, M. C., Terrasse, G. and Dubuisson, J. B. (1996). Genital schistosomiasis and infertility [Bilharziose genitale et sterilite feminine]. Contraception Fertilite Sexualite 24, 56–61.Google ScholarPubMed
Mukaratirwa, S., Siegismund, H. R., Kristensen, T. K. and Chandiwana, S. K. (1996). Genetic structure and parasite compatibility of Bulinus globosus (Gastropoda: Planorbidae) from two areas of different endemicity of Schistosoma haematobium in Zimbabwe. International Journal for Parasitology 26, 269–280.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murta-Nascimento, C., Schmitz-Dräger, B. J., Zeegers, M. P., Steineck, G., Kogevinas, M., Real, F. X. and Malats, N. (2007). Epidemiology of urinary bladder cancer: From tumor development to patient's death. World Journal of Urology 25, 285–295.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mwanakasale, V., Vounatsou, P., Sukwa, T. Y., Ziba, M., Ernest, A. and Tanner, M. (2003). Interactions between Schistosoma haematobium and human immunodeficiency virus type 1: The effects of coinfection on treatment outcomes in rural Zambia. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 69, 420–428.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mwinzi, P. N. M., Karanja, D. M. S., Colley, D. G., Orago, A. S. S. and Secor, W. E. (2001). Cellular immune responses of schistosomiasis patients are altered by human immunodeficiency virus type 1 coinfection. Journal of Infectious Diseases 184, 488–496.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ndhlovu, P. D., Mduluza, T., Kjetland, E. F., Midzi, N., Nyanga, L., Gundersen, S. G., Friis, H. and Gomo, E. (2007). Prevalence of urinary schistosomiasis and HIV in females living in a rural community of Zimbabwe: does age matter? Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 101, 433–438.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
N'goran, E. K., Utzinger, J., Gnaka, H. N., Yapi, A., N'guessan, N. A., Kigbafori, S. D., Lengeler, C. and Tanner, M. (2003). Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of oral artemether for the prevention of patent Schistosoma haematobium infections. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 68, 24–32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
N'Zoukoudi-N'Doundou, M.-Y., Dirat, I., Akouala, J.-J., Penchenier, L., Makuwa, M. and Rey, J.-L. (1995). Schistosomiasis and human immunodeficiency virus infection in Congo [Bilharziose et infection par le virus de l'immunodeficience humaine au Congo]. Medecine Tropicale 55, 249–251.Google ScholarPubMed
Oladejo, S. O. and Ofoezie, I. E. (2006). Unabated schistosomiasis transmission in Erinle River Dam, Osun State, Nigeria: Evidence of neglect of environmental effects of development projects. Tropical Medicine and International Health 11, 843–850.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Opara, K. N., Udoidung, N. I. and Ukpong, I. G. (2007). Genitourinary schistosomiasis among pre-primary schoolchildren in a rural community within the Cross River Basin, Nigeria. Journal of Helminthology 81, 393–397.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Palumbo, E. (2007). Association between schistosomiasis and cancer: A review. Infectious Diseases in Clinical Practice 15, 145–148.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pearce, E. J. (2003). Progress towards a vaccine for schistosomiasis. Acta Tropica 86, 309–313.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Poggensee, G. and Feldmeier, H. (2001). Female genital schistosomiasis: Facts and hypotheses. Acta Tropica 79, 193–210.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Poggensee, G., Feldmeier, H. and Krantz, I. (1999). Schistosomiasis of the female genital tract: Public health aspects. Parasitology Today 15, 378–381.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ramarakoto, C. E., Leutscher, P. D. C., van Dam, G. and Christensen, N. O. (2008). Ultrasonographical findings in the urogenital organs in women and men infected with Schistosoma haematobium in northern Madagascar. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 102, 767–773.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Retel-Lauretin, A. (1978). Appraising the role of certain diseases in sterility. An African example [Evaluation du role de certaines maladies dans l'infecondite. un exemple Africain]. Population 33, 101–119.Google Scholar
Ribeiro-dos-Santos, G., Verjovski-Almeida, S. and Leite, L. C. C. (2006). Schistosomiasis – A century searching for chemotherapeutic drugs. Parasitology Research 99, 505–521.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Richter, J. (2003). The impact of chemotherapy on morbidity due to schistosomiasis. Acta Tropica 86, 161–183.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Robinson, T. M. and Boyer, J. D. (2004). HIV-1 vaccines and co-infection. Expert Opinion on Biological Therapy 4, 1483–1492.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rollinson, D. and Johnston, D. A. (1996). Schistosomiasis: a persistent parasitic disease. Interdisciplinary Science Reviews 21, 140–154.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rollinson, D., Kaukas, A., Johnston, D. A., Simpson, A. J. G. and Tanaka, M. (1997). Some molecular insights into schistosome evolution. International Journal for Parasitology 27, 11–28.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rollinson, D., Klinger, E. V., Mgeni, A. F., Khamis, I. S. and Stothard, J. R. (2005). Urinary schistosomiasis on Zanzibar: Application of two novel assays for the detection of excreted albumin and haemoglobin in urine. Journal of Helminthology 79, 199–206.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rollinson, D. and Southgate, V. R. (1987). The genus Schistosoma: a taxonomic appraisal. In The Biology of Schistosomes, from Genes to Latrines (ed. Rollinson, D. and Simpson, A. J. G.), pp. 1–49. Academic Press, London, UK.Google Scholar
Rollinson, D., Stothard, J. R. and Southgate, V. R. (2001). Interactions between intermediate snail hosts of the genus Bulinus and schistosomes of the Schistosoma haematobium group. Parasitology 123, S245–S260.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rollinson, D, Webster, J. P., Nyakaana, S. and Stothard, J. R. (2009). Genetic diversity of schistosomes and snails: significance for control. Parasitology 136, (in the Press).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rudge, J. W., Stothard, J. R., Basáñez, M.-G., Mgeni, A. F., Khamis, I. S., Khamis, A. N. and Rollinson, D. (2008). Micro-epidemiology of urinary schistosomiasis in Zanzibar: Local risk factors associated with distribution of infections among schoolchildren and relevance for control. Acta Tropica 105, 45–54.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sabe, I., Mangoud, A. M., Elalfy, Y., Elsayed, M., Shaaban, W., Hafez, A. O., El Sherbini, G. T. and Morsy, A. T. (2008). New concept of schistosomiasis lesions of urinary bladder versus development of bladder cancer. Journal of the Egyptian Society for Parasitology 38, 85–102.Google ScholarPubMed
Sayed, A. A., Simeonov, A., Thomas, C. J., Inglese, J., Austin, C. P. and Williams, D. L. (2008) Identification of oxadiazoles as new drug leads for the control of schistosomiasis. Nature Medicine 14, 407–412.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schwartz, D. A. (1981). Helminths in the induction of cancer. II Schistosoma haematobium and bladder cancer. Tropical and Geographical Medicine 33, 1–7.Google ScholarPubMed
Secor, W. E. (2006). Interactions between schistosomiasis and infection with HIV-1. Parasite Immunology 28, 597–603.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Secor, W. E. and Sundstrom, J. B. (2007). Below the belt: New insights into potential complications of HIV-1/schistosome coinfections. Current Opinion in Infectious Diseases 20, 519–523.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sène, M., Southgate, V. R. and Vercruysse, J. (2004). Bulinus truncatus, intermediate host of Schistosoma haematobium in the Senegal River Basin (SRB) | [Bulinus truncatus, hôte intermédiaire de Schistosoma haematobium dans le bassin du fleuve Sénégal]. Bulletin de la Societe de Pathologie Exotique 97, 29–32.Google ScholarPubMed
Serour, G. I. (2008). Medical and socio-cultural aspects of infertility in the Middle East. Human Reproduction 1, 34–41.Google Scholar
Shaw, M. E., Elder, P. A., Abbas, A. and Knowles, M. A. (1999). Partial allelotype of schistosomiasis-associated bladder cancer. International Journal of Cancer 80, 656–661.3.0.CO;2-A>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sheweita, S. A., El-Shahat, F. G., Bazeed, M. A., Abu El-Maati, M. R. and O'Connor, P. J. (2004). Effects of Schistosoma haematobium infection on drug-metabolizing enzymes in human bladder cancer tissues. Cancer Letters 205, 15–21.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shiff, C., Veltri, R., Naples, J., Quartey, J., Otchere, J., Anyan, W., Marlow, C. and Bosompem, K. (2006). Ultrasound verification of bladder damage is associated with known biomarkers of bladder cancer in adults chronically infected with Schistosoma haematobium in Ghana. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 100, 847–854.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shuhua, X., Tanner, M., N'Goran, E. K., Utzinger, J., Chollet, J., Bergquist, R., Minggang, C. and Jiang, Z. (2002). Recent investigations of artemether, a novel agent for the prevention of schistosomiasis japonica, mansoni and haematobia. Acta Tropica 82, 175–181.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stothard, J. R. (2009). Improving control of African schistosomiasis: towards effective use of rapid diagnostic tests within an appropriate disease surveillance model. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 103, 325–332.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stothard, J. R., Mgeni, A. F., Khamis, S., Seto, E., Ramsan, M. and Rollinson, D. (2002 a). Urinary schistosomiasis in schoolchildren on Zanzibar Island (Unguja), Tanzania: A parasitological survey supplemented with questionnaires. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 96, 507–514.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stothard, J. R., Mgeni, A. F., Khamis, S., Seto, E., Ramsan, M., Hubbard, S. J., Kristensen, T. K. and Rollinson, D. (2002 b). Fresh from the fields. New Insights into the transmission biology of urinary schistosomiasis in Zanzibar. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 96, 470–475.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stothard, J. R., Sousa-Figueiredo, J. C., Simba Khamis, I., Garba, A. and Rollinson, D. (2009). Urinary schistosomiasis-associated morbidity in schoolchildren detected with urine albumin-to-creatinine ratio (UACR) reagent strips. Journal of Pediatric Urology (in the Press).Google Scholar
Stothard, J. R., Brémond, P., Andriamaro, L., Sellin, B., Sellin, E. and Rollinson, D. (2001). Bulinus species on Madagascar: Molecular evolution, genetic markers and compatibility with Schistosoma haematobium. Parasitology 123, S261–S275. doi:10.1017/S003118200100806X.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Swai, B., Poggensee, G., Mtweve, S. and Krantz, I. (2006). Female genital schistosomiasis as an evidence of a neglected cause for reproductive ill-health: A retrospective histopathological study from Tanzania. BMC Infectious Diseases 6, art. no. 134.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Talaat, M., Watts, S., Mekheimar, S., Ali, H. F. and Hamed, H. (2004). The social context of reproductive health in an Egyptian hamlet: A pilot study to identify female genital schistosomiasis. Social Science and Medicine 58, 515–524.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tallima, H. and El Ridi, R. (2007). Praziquantel binds Schistosoma mansoni adult worm actin. International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents 29, 570–575.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thomas, J. E., Bassett, M. T., Sigola, L. B. and Taylor, P. (1990). Relationship between bladder cancer incidence, Schistosoma haematobium infection, and geographical region in Zimbabwe. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 84, 551–553.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Troye-Blomberg, M. and Berzins, K. (2008). Immune interactions in malaria co-infections with other endemic infectious diseases: implications for the development of improved disease interventions. Microbes and Infection 10, 948–952.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tweyongyere, R., Mawa, P. A., Ngom-wegi, S., Ndibazza, J., Duong, T., Vennervald, B. J., Dunne, D. W., Katunguka-Rwakishaya, E. and Elliott, A. M. (2008). Effect of praziquantel treatment during pregnancy on cytokine responses to schistosome antigens: Results of a randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Journal of Infectious Diseases 198, 1870–1879.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Utzinger, J., Shu-Hua, X., Tanner, M. and Keiser, J. (2007). Artemisinins for schistosomiasis and beyond. Current Opinion in Investigational Drugs 8, 105–116.Google ScholarPubMed
van der Werf, M. J., Bosompem, K. M. and de Vlas, S. J. (2003 a). Schistosomiasis control in Ghana: Case management and means for diagnosis and treatment within the health system. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 97, 146–152.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van der Werf, M. J., De Vlas, S. J., Brooker, S., Looman, C. W. N., Nagelkerke, N. J. D., Habbema, J. D. F. and Engels, D. (2003 b). Quantification of clinical morbidity associated with schistosome infection in sub-Saharan Africa. Acta Tropica 86, 125–139.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van Riet, E., Hartgers, F. C. and Yazdanbakhsh, M. (2007). Chronic helminth infections induce immunomodulation: Consequences and mechanisms. Immunobiology 212, 475–490.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Verjovski-Almeida, S., DeMarco, R., Martins, E. A., Guimarães, P. E., Ojopi, E. P., Paquola, A. C., Piazza, J. P., Nishiyama, M. Y. Jr.Kitajima, J. P., Adamson, R. E., Ashton, P. D., Bonaldo, M. F., Coulson, P. S., Dillon, G. P., Farias, L. P., Gregorio, S. P., Ho, P. L., Leite, R. A., Malaquias, L. C., Marques, R. C., Miyasato, P. A., Nascimento, A. L., Ohlweiler, F. P., Reis, E. M., Ribeiro, M. A., Sá, R. G., Stukart, G. C., Soares, M. B., Gargioni, C., Kawano, T., Rodrigues, V., Madeira, A. M., Wilson, R. A., Menck, C. F., Setubal, J. C., Leite, L. C., Dias-Neto, E. (2009). Transcriptome analysis of the acoelomate human parasite Schistosoma mansoni. Nature Genetics 35, 148–157.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vizcaino, A. P., Parkin, D. M., Boffetta, P. and Skinner, M. E. G. (1994). Bladder cancer: Epidemiology and risk factors in Bulawayo, Zimbabwe. Cancer Causes and Control 5, 517–522.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Webster, B. L., Southgate, V. R., Timothy, D. and Littlewood, J. (2006). A revision of the interrelationships of Schistosoma including the recently described Schistosoma guineensis. International Journal for Parasitology 36, 947–955.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Webster, B. L., Tchuem Tchuenté, L. A., Jourdane, J. and Southgate, V. R. (2005). The interaction of Schistosoma haematobium and S. guineensis in Cameroon. Journal of Helminthology 79, 193–197.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
World Health Organization (2002). Prevention and control of schistosomiasis and soil-transmitted helminthiasis. WHO Technical Report Series No. 912. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.Google Scholar
Wilson, R. A. and Coulson, P. S. (2006). Schistosome vaccines: A critical appraisal. Memorias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz 101, 13–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wishahi, M. M. (1997). Epidemiology and natural history of bladder cancer associated with bilharziasis (egypt 1970–1996). British Journal of Urology 80, 59.Google Scholar
Wright, C. A. and Ross, G. C. (1980). Hybrids between Schistosoma haematobium and S. mattheei and their identification by isoelectric focussing of enzymes. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 74, 326–332.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wu, X., Ros, M. M., Gu, J. and Kiemeney, L. (2008). Epidemiology and genetic susceptibility to bladder cancer. BJU International 102, 1207–1215.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yacoubi, B., Zekhnini, A., Moukrim, A. and Rondelaud, D. (2007). Bulinus truncatus, Planorbarius metidjensis and endemic bilharziosis in the South-West of Morocco [Bulinus, planorbes et endémie bilharzienne dans le sud-ouest marocain]. Bulletin de la Societe de Pathologie Exotique 100, 174–175.Google ScholarPubMed
Zarzour, A. H., Selim, M., Abd-Elsayed, A. A., Hameed, D. A. and AbdelAziz, M. A. (2008). Muscle invasive bladder cancer in Upper Egypt: The shift in risk factors and tumor characteristics. BMC Cancer 8, art. no. 250.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zerlotini, A., Heiges, M., Wang, H., Moraes, R. L. V., Dominitini, A. J., Ruiz, J. C., Kissinger, J. C. and Oliveira, G. (2009). SchistoDB: A Schistosoma mansoni genome resource. Nucleic Acids Research 37, D579–D58.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed