Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-8ctnn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-22T23:11:21.618Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Vaccine against scabies: necessity and possibility

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  28 January 2014

XIAOSONG LIU*
Affiliation:
Inflammation and Healing Research Cluster, Faculty of Science, Health, Education and Engineering, School of Health and Sport Sciences, University of Sunshine Coast, Locked Bag 4, Marcoochydore DC, QLD 4558, Australia
SHELLEY WALTON
Affiliation:
Inflammation and Healing Research Cluster, Faculty of Science, Health, Education and Engineering, School of Health and Sport Sciences, University of Sunshine Coast, Locked Bag 4, Marcoochydore DC, QLD 4558, Australia
KATE MOUNSEY
Affiliation:
Inflammation and Healing Research Cluster, Faculty of Science, Health, Education and Engineering, School of Health and Sport Sciences, University of Sunshine Coast, Locked Bag 4, Marcoochydore DC, QLD 4558, Australia
*
* Corresponding author: Inflammation and Healing Research Cluster, Faculty of Science, Health, Education and Engineering, School of Health and Sports Sciences, University of Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, QLD, Australia. E-mail: [email protected]

Summary

Scabies is an infectious disease that is endemic in poorly resourced communities, and also common in industrialized countries. Although the disease, which is caused by infestation of Sarcoptes scabiei, is generally mild, the need for a vaccine against S. scabiei is proposed. The immunological mechanisms that control S. scabiei infection are discussed and the current status of scabies vaccine development reviewed. Future directions for scabies vaccine development are also addressed.

Type
Review Article
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2014 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Ariza, L., Walter, B., Worth, C., Brockmann, S., Weber, M. L. and Feldmeier, H. (2012). Investigation of a scabies outbreak in a kindergarten in Constance, Germany. European Journal of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases 32, 372380.Google Scholar
Arlian, L. G., Morgan, M. S., Vyszenski-Moher, D. L. and Stemmer, B. L. (1994 a). Sarcoptes scabiei: the circulating antibody response and induced immunity to scabies. Experimental Parasitology 78, 3750.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arlian, L. G., Rapp, C. M., Vyszenski-Moher, D. L. and Morgan, M. S. (1994 b). Sarcoptes scabiei: histopathological changes associated with acquisition and expression of host immunity to scabies. Experimental Parasitology 78, 5163.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arlian, L. G., Rapp, C. M. and Morgan, M. S. (1995). Resistance and immune response in scabies-infested hosts immunized with Dermatophagoides mites. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 52, 539545.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arlian, L. G., Morgan, M. S., Rapp, C. M. and Vyszenski-Moher, D. L. (1996). The development of protective immunity in canine scabies. Veterinary Parasitology 62, 133142.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arlian, L. G., Rapp, C. M., Stemmer, B. L., Morgan, M. S. and Moore, P. F. (1997). Characterization of lymphocyte subtypes in scabietic skin lesions of naive and sensitized dogs. Veterinary Parasitology 68, 347358.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arlian, L. G., Morgan, M. S. and Neal, J. S. (2003). Modulation of cytokine expression in human keratinocytes and fibroblasts by extracts of scabies mites. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 69, 652656.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arlian, L. G., Morgan, M. S., Estes, S. A., Walton, S. F., Kemp, D. J. and Currie, B. J. (2004). Circulating IgE in patients with ordinary and crusted scabies. Journal of Medical Entomology 41, 7477.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arlian, L. G., Morgan, M. S. and Paul, C. C. (2006). Evidence that scabies mites (Acari: Sarcoptidae) influence production of interleukin-10 and the function of T-regulatory cells (Tr1) in humans. Journal of Medical Entomology 43, 283287.Google ScholarPubMed
Beckham, S. A., Boyd, S. E., Reynolds, S., Willis, C., Johnstone, M., Mika, A., Simerska, P., Wijeyewickrema, L. C., Smith, A. I., Kemp, D. J., Pike, R. N. and Fischer, K. (2009). Characterization of a serine protease homologous to house dust mite group 3 allergens from the scabies mite Sarcoptes scabiei . Journal of Biological Chemistry 284, 3441334422. doi: 10.1074/jbc.M109.061911.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berezhnoy, A., Stewart, C. A., McNamara, J. O. II, Thiel, W., Giangrande, P., Trinchieri, G. and Gilboa, E. (2012). Isolation and optimization of murine IL-10 receptor blocking oligonucleotide aptamers using high-throughput sequencing. Molecular Therapy 20, 12421250. doi: 10.1038/mt.2012.18.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berzofsky, J. A. (2012). A push-pull vaccine strategy using Toll-like receptor ligands, IL-15, and blockade of negative regulation to improve the quality and quantity of T cell immune responses. Vaccine 30, 43234327. doi: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2011.11.034.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blatner, N. R., Bonertz, A., Beckhove, P., Cheon, E. C., Krantz, S. B., Strouch, M., Weitz, J., Koch, M., Halverson, A. L., Bentrem, D. J. and Khazaie, K. (2010). In colorectal cancer mast cells contribute to systemic regulatory T-cell dysfunction. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 107, 64306435. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0913683107.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brooks, D. G., Trifilo, M. J., Edelmann, K. H., Teyton, L., McGavern, D. B. and Oldstone, M. B. (2006). Interleukin-10 determines viral clearance or persistence in vivo . Nature Medicine 12, 13011309. doi: 10.1038/nm1492.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cabrera, R., Agar, A. and Dahl, M. V. (1993). The immunology of scabies. Seminars in Dermatology 12, 1521.Google ScholarPubMed
Chen, J., Ni, G. and Liu, X. S. (2011 a). Papillomavirus virus like particle-based therapeutic vaccine against human papillomavirus infection related diseases: immunological problems and future directions. Cellular Immunology 269, 59. doi: 10.1016/j.cellimm.2011.03.003.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chen, X., Fernando, G. J., Crichton, M. L., Flaim, C., Yukiko, S. R., Fairmaid, E. J., Corbett, H. J., Primiero, C. A., Ansaldo, A. B., Frazer, I. H., Brown, L. E. and Kendall, M. A. (2011 b). Improving the reach of vaccines to low-resource regions, with a needle-free vaccine delivery device and long-term thermostabilization. Journal of Controlled Release 152, 349355. doi: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2011.02.026.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Churchill, R. B. and Pickering, L. K. (1997). Infection control challenges in child-care centers. Infectious Disease Clinics of North America 11, 347365.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clucas, D. B., Carville, K. S., Connors, C., Currie, B. J., Carapetis, J. R. and Andrews, R. M. (2008). Disease burden and health-care clinic attendances for young children in remote aboriginal communities of northern Australia. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 86, 275281.Google ScholarPubMed
Currie, B. J., Harumal, P., McKinnon, M. and Walton, S. F. (2004). First documentation of in vivo and in vitro ivermectin resistance in Sarcoptes scabiei . Clinical Infectious Diseases 39, e8e12. doi: 10.1086/421776.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fairfax, K. C., Amiel, E., King, I. L., Freitas, T. C., Mohrs, M. and Pearce, E. J. (2012). IL-10R blockade during chronic Schistosomiasis mansoni results in the loss of B cells from the liver and the development of severe pulmonary disease. PLoS Pathogens 8, e1002490. doi: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1002490.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fuchs, B. S., Sapadin, A. N., Phelps, R. G. and Rudikoff, D. (2007). Diagnostic dilemma: crusted scabies superimposed on psoriatic erythroderma in a patient with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Skinmed 6, 142144.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Geldhof, P., De Maere, V., Vercruysse, J. and Claerebout, E. (2007). Recombinant expression systems: the obstacle to helminth vaccines? Trends in Parasitology 23, 527532. doi: 10.1016/j.pt.2007.08.012.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harumal, P., Morgan, M., Walton, S. F., Holt, D. C., Rode, J., Arlian, L. G., Currie, B. J. and Kemp, D. J. (2003). Identification of a homologue of a house dust mite allergen in a cDNA library from Sarcoptes scabiei var hominis and evaluation of its vaccine potential in a rabbit/S. scabiei var. canis model. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 68, 5460.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hejduk, G., Hofstatter, K., Lowenstein, M., Peschke, R., Miller, I. and Joachim, A. (2011). Characterisation of Sarcoptes scabiei antigens. Parasitology Research 108, 309315. doi: 10.1007/s00436-010-2063-z.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hengge, U. R., Currie, B. J., Jager, G., Lupi, O. and Schwartz, R. A. (2006). Scabies: a ubiquitous neglected skin disease. Lancet Infectious Diseases 6, 769779. doi: 10.1016/S1473-3099(06)70654-5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heukelbach, J. and Feldmeier, H. (2006). Scabies. Lancet 367, 17671774. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(06)68772-2.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Holt, D. C., Fischer, K., Allen, G. E., Wilson, D., Wilson, P., Slade, R., Currie, B. J., Walton, S. F. and Kemp, D. J. (2003). Mechanisms for a novel immune evasion strategy in the scabies mite Sarcoptes scabiei: a multigene family of inactivated serine proteases. Journal of Investigative Dermatology 121, 14191424. doi: 10.1046/j.1523-1747.2003.12621.x.Google ScholarPubMed
Kato, T., Takai, T., Mitsuishi, K., Okumura, K. and Ogawa, H. (2005). Cystatin A inhibits IL-8 production by keratinocytes stimulated with Der p 1 and Der f 1: biochemical skin barrier against mite cysteine proteases. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology 116, 169176. doi: 10.1016/j.jaci.2005.03.044.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kupferschmidt, K. (2013). A worm vaccine, coming at a snail's pace. Science 339, 502503. doi: 10.1126/science.339.6119.502.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lalli, P. N., Morgan, M. S. and Arlian, L. G. (2004). Skewed Th1/Th2 immune response to Sarcoptes scabiei . Journal of Parasitology 90, 711714. doi: 10.1645/GE-214R.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
La Vincente, S., Kearns, T., Connors, C., Cameron, S., Carapetis, J. and Andrews, R. (2009). Community management of endemic scabies in remote aboriginal communities of northern Australia: low treatment uptake and high ongoing acquisition. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 3, e444. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0000444.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Liu, X. S., Xu, Y., Hardy, L., Khammanivong, V., Zhao, W., Fernando, G. J., Leggatt, G. R. and Frazer, I. H. (2003). IL-10 mediates suppression of the CD8T cell IFN-gamma response to a novel viral epitope in a primed host. Journal of Immunology 171, 47654772.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Liu, X. S., Dyer, J., Leggatt, G. R., Fernando, G. J., Zhong, J., Thomas, R. and Frazer, I. H. (2006). Overcoming original antigenic sin to generate new CD8T cell IFN-gamma responses in an antigen-experienced host. Journal of Immunology 177, 28732879.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Liu, X. S., Leerberg, J., MacDonald, K., Leggatt, G. R. and Frazer, I. H. (2009). IFN-gamma promotes generation of IL-10 secreting CD4+T cells that suppress generation of CD8 responses in an antigen-experienced host. Journal of Immunology 183, 5158. doi: 10.4049/jimmunol.0802047.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Makigami, K., Ohtaki, N., Ishii, N., Tamashiro, T., Yoshida, S. and Yasumura, S. (2011). Risk factors for recurrence of scabies: a retrospective study of scabies patients in a long-term care hospital. Journal of Dermatology 38, 874879. doi: 10.1111/j.1346-8138.2011.01199.x.Google Scholar
Makigami, K., Ohtaki, N. and Yasumura, S. (2012). A 35-month prospective study on onset of scabies in a psychiatric hospital: discussion on patient transfer and incubation period. Journal of Dermatology 39, 160163. doi: 10.1111/j.1346-8138.2011.01324.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maritz-Olivier, C., van Zyl, W. and Stutzer, C. (2012). A systematic, functional genomics, and reverse vaccinology approach to the identification of vaccine candidates in the cattle tick, Rhipicephalus microplus . Ticks and Tick-borne Diseases 3, 179187. doi: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2012.01.003.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCarthy, J. S., Kemp, D. J., Walton, S. F. and Currie, B. J. (2004). Scabies: more than just an irritation. Postgraduate Medical Journal 80, 382387. doi: 10.1136/pgmj.2003.014563.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mellanby, K. (1977). Scabies in 1976. Royal Society of Health Journal 97, 32–36, 40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mika, A., Reynolds, S. L., Mohlin, F. C., Willis, C., Swe, P. M., Pickering, D. A., Halilovic, V., Wijeyewickrema, L. C., Pike, R. N., Blom, A. M., Kemp, D. J. and Fischer, K. (2012). Novel scabies mite serpins inhibit the three pathways of the human complement system. PLoS ONE 7, e40489. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0040489.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mounsey, K. E. and McCarthy, J. S. (2013). Treatment and control of scabies. Current Opinion in Infectious Diseases 26, 133139. doi: 10.1097/QCO.0b013e32835e1d57.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mounsey, K. E., Pasay, C. J., Arlian, L. G., Morgan, M. S., Holt, D. C., Currie, B. J., Walton, S. F. and McCarthy, J. S. (2010). Increased transcription of glutathione S-transferases in acaricide exposed scabies mites. Parasites and Vectors 3, 43. doi: 10.1186/1756-3305-3-43.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mounsey, K. E., McCarthy, J. S. and Walton, S. F. (2012). Scratching the itch: new tools to advance understanding of scabies. Trends in Parasitology 29, 3542. doi: 10.1016/j.pt.2012.09.006.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mounsey, K. E., McCarthy, J. S. and Walton, S. F. (2013). Scratching the itch: new tools to advance understanding of scabies. Trends in Parasitology 29, 3542. doi: 10.1016/j.pt.2012.09.006.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nisbet, A. J. and Huntley, J. F. (2006). Progress and opportunities in the development of vaccines against mites, fleas and myiasis-causing flies of veterinary importance. Parasite Immunology 28, 165172. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-3024.2006.00803.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nossal, G. J. (2003). Gates, GAVI, the glorious global funds and more: all you ever wanted to know. Immunology and Cell Biology 81, 2022. doi: 10.1046/j.0818-9641.2002.01139.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Noviana, D., Harjanti, D. W., Otsuka, Y. and Horii, Y. (2004). Proliferation of protease-enriched mast cells in sarcoptic skin lesions of raccoon dogs. Journal of Comparative Pathology 131, 2837. doi: 10.1016/j.jcpa.2004.01.001.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Odongo, D., Kamau, L., Skilton, R., Mwaura, S., Nitsch, C., Musoke, A., Taracha, E., Daubenberger, C. and Bishop, R. (2007). Vaccination of cattle with TickGARD induces cross-reactive antibodies binding to conserved linear peptides of Bm86 homologues in Boophilus decoloratus . Vaccine 25, 12871296. doi: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2006.09.085.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Orkin, M. (1993 a). Scabies in AIDS. Seminars in Dermatology 12, 914.Google ScholarPubMed
Orkin, M. (1993 b). Scabies in AIDS. Seminars in Dermatology 12, 914.Google ScholarPubMed
Orkin, M. and Maibach, H. I. (1993). Scabies therapy – 1993. Seminars in Dermatology 12, 2225.Google ScholarPubMed
Ouaissi, A., Ouaissi, M. and Sereno, D. (2002). Glutathione S-transferases and related proteins from pathogenic human parasites behave as immunomodulatory factors. Immunology Letters 81, 159164.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Parizi, L. F., Githaka, N. W., Logullo, C., Konnai, S., Masuda, A., Ohashi, K. and da Silva Vaz, I. Jr. (2012 a). The quest for a universal vaccine against ticks: cross-immunity insights. Veterinary Journal 194, 158165. doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2012.05.023.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Parizi, L. F., Reck, J. Jr., Oldiges, D. P., Guizzo, M. G., Seixas, A., Logullo, C., de Oliveira, P. L., Termignoni, C., Martins, J. R. and da Silva Vaz, I. Jr. (2012 b). Multi-antigenic vaccine against the cattle tick Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus: a field evaluation. Vaccine 30, 69126917. doi: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2012.08.078.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pasay, C., Walton, S., Fischer, K., Holt, D. and McCarthy, J. (2006). PCR-based assay to survey for knockdown resistance to pyrethroid acaricides in human scabies mites (Sarcoptes scabiei var. hominis). American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 74, 649657.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Paules, S. J., Levisohn, D. and Heffron, W. (1993). Persistent scabies in nursing home patients. Journal of Family Practice 37, 8286.Google ScholarPubMed
Pettersson, E. U., Ljunggren, E. L., Morrison, D. A. and Mattsson, J. G. (2005). Functional analysis and localisation of a delta-class glutathione S-transferase from Sarcoptes scabiei . International Journal for Parasitology 35, 3948. doi: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2004.09.006.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pitt, J. M., Stavropoulos, E., Redford, P. S., Beebe, A. M., Bancroft, G. J., Young, D. B. and O'Garra, A. (2012). Blockade of IL-10 signaling during Bacillus Calmette-Guerin vaccination enhances and sustains Th1, Th17, and innate lymphoid IFN-gamma and IL-17 responses and increases protection to Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection. Journal of Immunology 189, 40794087. doi: 10.4049/jimmunol.1201061.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rampton, M., Walton, S. F., Holt, D. C., Pasay, C., Kelly, A., Currie, B. J., McCarthy, J. S. and Mounsey, K. E. (2013). Antibody responses to Sarcoptes scabiei apolipoprotein in a porcine model: relevance to immunodiagnosis of recent infection. PLoS ONE 8, e65354. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0065354.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rapp, C. M., Morgan, M. S. and Arlian, L. G. (2006). Presence of host immunoglobulin in the gut of Sarcoptes scabiei (Acari: Sareoptidae). Journal of Medical Entomology 43, 539542. doi: 10.1603/0022-2585(2006)43[539:Pohiit]2.0.Co;2.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reunala, T., Ranki, A., Rantanen, T. and Salo, O. P. (1984). Inflammatory cells in skin lesions of scabies. Clinical and Experimental Dermatology 9, 7077.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roberts, L. J., Huffam, S. E., Walton, S. F. and Currie, B. J. (2005). Crusted scabies: clinical and immunological findings in seventy-eight patients and a review of the literature. Journal of Infection 50, 375381. doi: 10.1016/j.jinf.2004.08.033.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rodriguez-Cadenas, F., Carbajal-Gonzalez, M. T., Fregeneda-Grandes, J. M., Aller-Gancedo, J. M. and Rojo-Vazquez, F. A. (2010 a). Clinical evaluation and antibody responses in sheep after primary and secondary experimental challenges with the mange mite Sarcoptes scabiei var. ovis . Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology 133, 109116. doi: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2009.07.004.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rodriguez-Cadenas, F., Carbajal-Gonzalez, M. T., Fregeneda-Grandes, J. M., Aller-Gancedo, J. M. and Rojo-Vazquez, F. A. (2010 b). Clinical evaluation and antibody responses in sheep after primary and secondary experimental challenges with the mange mite Sarcoptes scabiei var. ovis. Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology 133, 109116. doi: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2009.07.004.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Salo, O. P., Reunala, T., Kalimo, K. and Rantanen, T. (1982). Immunoglobulin and complement deposits in the skin and circulating immune complexes in scabies. Acta Dermato-venereologica 62, 7376.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schneider, B., Jariwala, A. R., Periago, M. V., Gazzinelli, M. F., Bose, S. N., Hotez, P. J., Diemert, D. J. and Bethony, J. M. (2011). A history of hookworm vaccine development. Human Vaccines 7, 12341244. doi: 10.4161/hv.7.11.18443.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Skerratt, L. F. (2003). Cellular response in the dermis of common wombats (Vombatus ursinus) infected with Sarcoptes scabiei var. wombati . Journal of Wildlife Diseases 39, 193202.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stemmer, B. L., Arlian, L. G., Morgan, M. S., Rapp, C. M. and Moore, P. F. (1996). Characterization of antigen presenting cells and T-cells in progressing scabietic skin lesions. Veterinary Parasitology 67, 247258.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Su, W., Fan, H., Chen, M., Wang, J., Brand, D., He, X., Quesniaux, V., Ryffel, B., Zhu, L., Liang, D. and Zheng, S. G. (2012). Induced CD4+ forkhead box protein-positive T cells inhibit mast cell function and established contact hypersensitivity through TGF-beta1. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology 130, 444452. e447. doi: 10.1016/j.jaci.2012.05.011.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Taplin, D. and Meinking, T. L. (1997). Treatment of HIV-related scabies with emphasis on the efficacy of ivermectin. Seminars in Cutaneous Medicine and Surgery 16, 235240.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tarigan, S. and Huntley, J. F. (2005). Failure to protect goats following vaccination with soluble proteins of Sarcoptes scabiei: evidence for a role for IgE antibody in protection. Veterinary Parasitology 133, 101109. doi: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2005.03.044.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Terada, Y., Murayama, N., Ikemura, H., Morita, T. and Nagata, M. (2010). Sarcoptes scabiei var. canis refractory to ivermectin treatment in two dogs. Veterinary Dermatology 21, 608612. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-3164.2010.00895.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Van Neste, D. J. and Staquet, M. J. (1986). Similar epidermal changes in hyperkeratotic scabies of humans and pigs. American Journal of Dermatopathology 8, 267273.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Walton, S. F. (2010). The immunology of susceptibility and resistance to scabies. Parasite Immunology 32, 532540. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-3024.2010.01218.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Walton, S. F. and Currie, B. J. (2007). Problems in diagnosing scabies, a global disease in human and animal populations. Clinical Microbiology Reviews 20, 268279. doi: 10.1128/CMR.00042-06.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Walton, S. F., McBroom, J., Mathews, J. D., Kemp, D. J. and Currie, B. J. (1999). Crusted scabies: a molecular analysis of Sarcoptes scabiei variety hominis populations from patients with repeated infestations. Clinical Infectious Diseases 29, 12261230. doi: 10.1086/313466.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Walton, S. F., Holt, D. C., Currie, B. J. and Kemp, D. J. (2004). Scabies: new future for a neglected disease. Advances in Parasitology 57, 309376. doi: 10.1016/S0065-308X(04)57005-7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Walton, S. F., Beroukas, D., Roberts-Thomson, P. and Currie, B. J. (2008). New insights into disease pathogenesis in crusted (Norwegian) scabies: the skin immune response in crusted scabies. British Journal of Dermatology 158, 12471255. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2133.2008.08541.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Walton, S. F., Pizzutto, S., Slender, A., Viberg, L., Holt, D., Hales, B. J., Kemp, D. J., Currie, B. J., Rolland, J. M. and O'Hehir, R. (2010). Increased allergic immune response to Sarcoptes scabiei antigens in crusted versus ordinary scabies. Clinical and Vaccine Immunology 17, 14281438. doi: 10.1128/CVI.00195-10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Willis, C., Fischer, K., Walton, S. F., Currie, B. J. and Kemp, D. J. (2006). Scabies mite inactivated serine protease paralogues are present both internally in the mite gut and externally in feces. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 75, 683687.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zhang, R., Jise, Q., Zheng, W., Ren, Y., Nong, X., Wu, X., Gu, X., Wang, S., Peng, X., Lai, S. and Yang, G. (2012). Characterization and evaluation of a Sarcoptes scabiei allergen as a candidate vaccine. Parasites and Vectors 5, 176. doi: 10.1186/1756-3305-5-176.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zhu, Q., Talton, J., Zhang, G., Cunningham, T., Wang, Z., Waters, R. C., Kirk, J., Eppler, B., Klinman, D. M., Sui, Y., Gagnon, S., Belyakov, I. M., Mumper, R. J. and Berzofsky, J. A. (2012). Large intestine-targeted, nanoparticle-releasing oral vaccine to control genitorectal viral infection. Nature Medicine 18, 12911296.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed