Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-lj6df Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-19T10:09:50.840Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Current status of nematodes for the biological control of insects

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  06 April 2009

J. J. Petersen
J. J. Petersen
Affiliation:
U.S. Dept. Agriculture Department of Entomology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska 68583, USA
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Summary

This review highlights published research on the principal entomogenous nematodes that have potential as biological control agents of insects. The life-cycles and status of promising members of the families Allantonematidae, Diplogasteridae, Heterorhabditidae, Mermithidae, Neotylenchidae, Rhabditidae, Sphaerulariidae, Steinernematidae and Tetradonematidae are discussed. Emphasis is placed on attempts to control insect populations with these nematodes. Mass propagation of the Steinernematidae and Mermithidae are also discussed, including current in vivo and in vitro rearing systems. A number of these nematodes show promise as biological control agents but commercial development has been slow because of environmental limitations, host specificity and inherent problems associated with manipulation of living organisms. Although some of these nematodes have been considered for commercial preparation, it appears that they will remain ‘on the shelf’ until the need for such biological control provides small businesses with the incentive to make them available for general use.

Type
Research Article
Information
Parasitology , Volume 84 , Issue 4 , April 1982 , pp. 177 - 204
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1982

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Bedding, R. A. (1967). Parasitic and free living cycles in the entomogenous nematodes of the genus Deladenus. Nature, London 214, 174–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bedding, R. A. (1974). Five new species of Deladenus (Neotylenchidae) entomophagous-mycetophagous nematodes parasitic in siricid woodwasps. Nematologica 20, 204–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bedding, R. A. (1976). New methods increase the feasibility of using Neoaplectana spp. (Nematoda) for the control of insect pests. Proceedings of the International Colloquium on Invertebrate Pathology, Kingston 1, 250–4.Google Scholar
Bedding, R. A. & Miller, L. A. (1981). Disinfesting blackcurrent cuttings of Synanthedon tipuliformis, using the insect parasitic nematode, Neoaplectana bibionis. Environmental Entomology 10, 449–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Briand, L. J. & Welch, H. E. (1963). Use of entomophilic nematodes for insect pest control. Phytoprotection 44, 37–41.Google Scholar
Brown, B. J. & Platzer, E. G. (1977). The effects of temperature on the infectivity of Romanomermis culicivorax, Journal of Nematology 9, 166–72.Google Scholar
Brown, B. J. & Platzer, E. G. (1978 a). Salts and the infectivity of Romanomermis culicivorax. Journal of Nematology 10, 53–64.Google Scholar
Brown, B. J. & Platzer, E. G. (1978 b). Oxygen and the infectivity of Romanomermis culicivorax. Journal of Nematology 10, 110–13.Google ScholarPubMed
Brown, B. J., Platzer, E. G. & Hughes, D. S. (1977). Field trials with the mermithid nematode Romanomermis culicivorax, in California. Mosquito News 37, 603–8.Google Scholar
Brown-Westerdahl, B., Washino, R. K. & Platzer, E. G. (1979). Early season application of Romanomermis culicivorax provides continuous partial control of rice field mosquitoes. Proceedings of the California Mosquito Vector Control Association 47, 55.Google Scholar
Castillo, J. M., Chin, P. & Roberts, D. W. (1982). Growth and development of Romanomermis culicivorax Ross and Smith in vitro. Journal of Nematology (in the Press).Google Scholar
Chamberlin, F. S. & Dutky, S. R. (1958). Tests of pathogens for the control of tobacco insects. Journal of Economic Entomology 51, 560.Google Scholar
Chandrahas, R. K. & Rajagopalan, R. K. (1979). Mosquito breeding and the natural parasitism of larvae by a fungus, Coelomomyces and a mermithid nematode, Romanomermis, in paddy fields in Pondicherry. Indian Journal of Medical Research 69, 63–70.Google Scholar
Chapman, J. & Ecke, D. H. (1969). Study of a population of chironomic midges (Tanytarsus) parasitized by mermithid nematodes in Santa Clara County, California. California Vector Views 16, 83–8.Google Scholar
Chen, P. S. (1976). A study of Reesimermis nielseni for control of Culex pipiens fatigans in Taiwan. Bulletin of the Institute of Zoology Academia Sinica 15, 21–8.Google Scholar
Cheng, H. H. & Bucher, G. E. (1972). Field comparison of the neoaplectanid nematode DD-136 with diazinon for control of Hylemya spp. on tobacco. Journal of Economic Entomology 65, 1761–3.Google Scholar
Christie, J. R. (1937). Mermis nigrescens, a nematode parasite of grasshoppers. Journal of Agricultural Research 55, 353–64.Google Scholar
Creighton, C. S. & Fassuliotis, G. (1981). A laboratory technique for culturing Filipjevimermis leipsandra a nematode parasite of Diabrotica balteata larvae. Journal of Nematology 13, 226–7.Google Scholar
Creighton, C. S. & Fassuliotis, G. (1982). Mass rearing the mermithid nematode Filipjevimermis leipsandra. Journal of Economic Entomology (in the Press).Google Scholar
Cupello, J. M., Petersen, J. J. & Chauthani, A. R. (1982). Development of methods and materials for the successful long distance shipping of the mosquito parasite Romanomermis culicivorax. Journal of Nematology (in the Press).Google Scholar
Cuthbert, F. P. Jr. (1968). Bionomics of a mermithid (Nematode) parasite of soil-inhabiting larvae of certain chrysomelids (Coleptera). Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 12, 283–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dadd, R. H. (1971). Size limitation on the infectibility of mosquito larvae by nematodes during filter-feeding. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 18, 246–51.Google Scholar
Doucet, M. M., Laumond, C. & Bain, O. (1979). Epidomermis riouxi new species (Nematoda: Mermithidae) parasite from Aedes detritus (Diptera: Culicidae). Annates de parasitologic humaine et comparée 54, 341–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dutky, S. R. (1959). Insect microbiology. Advances in Applied Microbiology 1, 175–200.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dutky, S. R. & Hough, W. S. (1958). Note on a parasitic nematode from codling moth larvae, Carpocapsa pomonella (Lepidoptera, Olethreutidae). Proceedings of the Entomology Society, Washington 57, 244.Google Scholar
Fassuliotis, G. & Creighton, C. S. (1982). In vitro cultivation of Filipjevimermis leipsandra. Journal of Nematology (in the Press).Google Scholar
Fedorko, A. & Stanuszek, S. (1971). Pristionchus uniformis sp. n. (Nematoda, Rhabdilida, Diplogasteridae), a faculative parasite of Leptinotarsa decemlineata Say and Melolontha melolontha L. in Poland. Morphology and biology. Acta Parasitologica Polonica 19, 95–112.Google Scholar
Finney, J. R. (1975). The penetration of three simuliid species by the nematode Reesimermis nielseni. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 52, 235.Google ScholarPubMed
Finney, J. R. (1977). The development of Romanomermis culicivorax in in vitro culture. Nematologica 23, 479–80.Google Scholar
Finney, J. R., Gordon, R., Condon, W. J. & Rusted, T. N. (1977). Laboratory studies on the feasibility of integrated mosquito control using an insect growth regulator and a mermithid nematode. Mosquito News 37, 6–11.Google Scholar
Galloway, T. D. & Brust, R. A. (1977). Effects of temperature and photoperiod on the infection of two mosquito species by the mermithid, Romanomermis culicivorax. Journal of Nematology 9, 218–21.Google Scholar
Galloway, T. D. & Brust, R. A. (1979). Review of the genus Romanomermis (Nematoda: Mermithidae) with a description of R. communensis sp. n. from Canada. Canadian Journal of Zoology 57, 281–9.Google Scholar
Gaugler, R. (1981). The biological control potential of neoaplictanid nematodes. Journal of Nematology 12, 141–9.Google Scholar
Gaugler, R. & Boush, G. M. (1978). Effects of ultraviolet radiation and sunlight on the entomogenous nematode, Neoaplectana carpocapsae. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 32, 291–6.Google Scholar
Gaugler, R., LeBeck, L., Nakagaki, B. & Boush, G. M. (1981). Orientation of the entomogenous nematode Neoaplectana carpocapsae to carbon dioxide. Environmental Entomology 9, 649–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gaugler, R. & Molloy, D. (1981). Field evaluation of the entomogenous nematode, Neoaplectana carpocapsae, against Simulium spp. larvae and nontarget invertebrates. Mosquito News 41, 459–64.Google Scholar
Glaser, R. W. (1931). The cultivation of a nematode parasite of an insect. Science 73, 614.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Glaser, R. W. (1932). Studies on Neoaplectana glaseri, a nematode parasite of the Japanese beetle (Popillia japonica). New Jersey Department of Agriculture Circular 211, 3–24.Google Scholar
Glaser, R. W. & Farrell, C. C. (1935). Field experiments with the Japanese beetle and its nematode parasite. Journal of the New York Entomology Society 43, 345–71.Google Scholar
Glaser, R. W., McCoy, E. E. & Girth, H. B. (1940). The biology and economic importance of a nematode parasitic in insects. Journal of Parasitology 26, 479–95.Google Scholar
Gordon, R., Bailey, C. H. & Barber, J. M. (1974). Parasitic development of the mermithid nematode Reesimermis nielseni in the larval mosquito Aedes aegypti. Canadian Journal of Zoology 52, 1293–302.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hansen, E. L. & Hansen, J. W. (1976). Parasitism of Simulium damnosum by Romanomermis culicivorax. IRCS Medical Science 4, 508.Google Scholar
Hara, A. H., Lindegren, J. E. & Kaya, H. K. (1981). Monoxenic mass-production of the entomogenous nematode, Neoaplectana carpocapsae Weiser on dog food-agar medium. USD-A/SEA Advances in Agricultural Technology, Western Series (in the Press).Google Scholar
Harlan, D. P., Dutky, S. R., Padgett, G. G., Mitchell, J. A., Shaw, Z. A. & Bartlett, F. J. (1971). Parasitism of Neoaplectana dutkyi in white-fringed beetle larvae. Journal of Nematology 3, 280–3.Google ScholarPubMed
House, H. L., Welch, H. E. & Cleugh, R. R. (1965). Food medium of prepared dog biscuit for the mass-production of the nematode DD-136 (Nematoda:Steinernematidae). Nature, London 206, 847.Google Scholar
Hoy, J. B. & Petersen, J. J. (1973). fish and nematodes – current status of mosquito control techniques. Proceedings of the California Mosquito Control Association 41, 49–50.Google Scholar
Hudson, K. E. (1974). Regulation of greenhouse sciarid fly populations using Tetradonema plicans (Nematoda:Mermithidae). Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 23, 85–91.Google Scholar
Ionoffo, C. M., Biever, K. D., Johnson, W. W., Sanders, H. O., Chapman, H. C., Petersen, J. J. & Woodard, D. B. (1973). Susceptibility of aquatic vertebrates and invertebrates to the infective stage of the mosquito nematode Reesimermis nielseni. Mosquito News 33, 599–602.Google Scholar
Iyengar, M. O. T. (1927). Parasitic nematodes of Anopheles in Bengal. Far Eastern Association for Tropical Medicine, 7th Congress British India 3, 128–35.Google Scholar
Kaya, H. K. (1977). Development of the DD-136 strain of Neoaplectana carpocapsae at constant temperatures. Journal of Nematology 9, 346–9.Google ScholarPubMed
Kaya, H. K. (1982) Nematodes of bark beetles. In Plant and Insect Parasitic Nematodes (ed. Nickle, W. R.). New York: Marcel Dekker. (In the Press.)Google Scholar
Kaya, H. K. & Grieve, B. J. (1982). The nematode Neoaplectana carpocapsae and the beet armyworm Spodoptera exigua: infectivity of prepupae and pupae in soil and of adults during emergence from soil. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology (in the Press).Google Scholar
Kaya, H. K., Hara, A. H. & Reardon, R. C. (1981). Laboratory and field evaluation of Neoaplectana carpocapsae (Rhabditida:Steinernematidae) againsttheelmleaf beetle (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) and the western spruce budworm (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae). Canadian Entomologist 113, 787–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kurihara, T. & Kazuhisa, H. (1979). Two factors affecting parasitism by Romanomermis culicivorax in mosquito larvae. Japanese Journal of Sanitation 30, 200–2.Google Scholar
Levy, R., Hertlein, B. C., Petersen, J. J., Doggett, D. A. & Miller, T. W. Jr. (1979). Aerial application of Romanomermis culicivorax (Mermithidae: Nematoda) to control Anopheles and Culex mosquitoes in southwest Florida. Mosquito News 39, 20–5.Google Scholar
Levy, R. & Miller, T. W. Jr. (1977 a). Susceptibility of the mosquito nematode Romanomermis culicivorax (Mermithidae) to pesticides and growth regulators. Environmental Entomology 6, 447–8.Google Scholar
Levy, R. & Miller, T. W. Jr. (1977 b). Experimental release of a mermithid to control mosquitoes breeding in sewage settling tanks. Mosquito News 37, 410–14.Google Scholar
Levy, R. & Miller, T. W. Jr. (1977 c). Experimental release of Romanomermis culicivorax (Mermithidae: Nematoda) to control mosquitoes breeding in southwest Florida. Mosquito News 37, 483–6.Google Scholar
Lewis, L. C. & Raun, E. S. (1978). Laboratory and field evaluation of the DD-136 strain of Neoaplectana carpocapsae for control of the European corn borer, Ostrinia nubilalis. Iowa State Journal of Research 52, 391–6.Google Scholar
Lindegren, J. E., Curtis, C. E. & Poinar, G. O. Jr. (1978). Parasitic nematode seeks out naval orangeworm in almond orchards. California Agriculture 32, 10–11.Google Scholar
Lindegren, J. E., Yamashita, T. T. & Barnett, W. W. (1981). Potential carpenter worm control in fig orchards with an entomogenous nematode. California Agriculture (in the Press).Google Scholar
McCoy, E. E. & Girth, H. B. (1938). The culture of Neoaplectana glaseri on veal pulp. New Jersey Agriculture Circular 285, 3–12.Google Scholar
McCoy, E. E. & Glaser, R. W. (1936). Nematode culture for Japanese bettle control. New Jersey Agriculture Circular 265, 1–10.Google Scholar
Mitchell, C. J., Chen, P. & Chapman, H. C. (1974). Exploratory trials utilizing a mermithid nematode as a control agent for Culex mosquitoes in Taiwan. Journal of the Formosan Medical Association 73, 241–54.Google Scholar
Molloy, D. P. (1981). Mermithid parasitism of black flies (Diptera: Simuliidae). Journal of Nematology 10, 250–6.Google Scholar
Molloy, D., Gaugler, R. & Jamnback, H. (1980). The parthogenicity of Neoaplectana carpocapsae to black fly larvae. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 36, 302–6.Google Scholar
Molloy, D. & Jamnback, H. (1977). A larval black fly control field trial using mermithid parasites and its cost implication. Mosquito News 37, 104–8.Google Scholar
Moore, G. E. (1965). The bionomics of an insect-parasitic nematode. Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society 38, 101–5.Google Scholar
Moore, G. E. (1970). Dendroctonus frontalis infection by the DD-136 strain of Neoaplectana carpocapsae and its bacterium complex. Journal of Nematology 2, 341–4.Google Scholar
Muspratt, J. (1947). The laboratory culture of a nematode parasite of mosquito larvae. Journal of the Entomological Society of South Africa 10, 131–2.Google Scholar
Obiamiwe, B. A. & MacDonald, W. W. (1973). A new parasite of mosquitoes, Reesimermis muspratti sp. n. (Nematoda: Mermithidae), with notes on its life-cycle. American Tropical Medical Parasitology 67, 439–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Petebsen, J. J. (1972). Factors affecting sex determination in a mermithid parasite of mosquitoes. Mosquito News 32, 226–30.Google Scholar
Petersen, J. J. (1978 a). Development of resistance by the southern house mosquito to the parasitic nematode Romanomermis culicivorax. Economic Entomology 7, 518–20.Google Scholar
Petersen, J. J. (1978 b). Observations on the mass production of Romanomermis culicivorax, a nematode parasite of mosquitoes. Mosquito News 38, 83–6.Google Scholar
Petersen, J. J. (1979). pH as a factor in parasitism of mosquito larvae by the mermithid Romanomermis culicivorax. Journal of Nematology 11, 105–6.Google Scholar
Petersen, J. J. (1980). Mass production of the mosquito parasite Romanomermis culicivorax: Effect of density. Journal of Nematology 12, 45–8.Google Scholar
Petersen, J. J. (1981). Observations on the biology of Octomyomermis muspratti, a nematode parasite of mosquitoes. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 37, 290–4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Petersen, J. J. & Chapman, H. C. (1970). Parasitism of Anopheles mosquitoes by a Gastromermis sp. (Nematoda: Mermithidae) in southwestern Louisiana. Mosquito News 30, 420–4.Google Scholar
Petersen, J. J. & Chapman, H. C. (1979). Checklist of mosquito species tested against the nematode parasite Romanomermis culicivorax. Journal of Medical Entomology 15, 468–71.Google Scholar
Petersen, J. J., Chapman, H. C., Willis, O. R. & Fukuda, T. (1978). Release of Romanomermis culicivorax for the control of Anopheles albimanus in El Salvador. II. Application of the nematode. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 27, 1268–73.Google Scholar
Petersen, J. J., Chapman, H. C. & Woodard, D. B. (1967). Preliminary observations on the incidence and biology of a mermithid nematode of Aedes sollicitans (Walker) in Louisiana. Mosquito News 27, 493–8.Google Scholar
Petersen, J. J., Chapman, H. C. & Woodard, D. B. (1968). Bionomics of a mermithid nematode of larval mosquitoes in southwestern Louisiana. Mosquito News 28, 346–52.Google Scholar
Petersen, J. J. & Willis, O. R. (1970). Some factors affecting parasitism by mermithid nematodes in southern house mosquito larvae. Journal Economic Entomology 63, 175–8.Google Scholar
Petersen, J. J. & Willis, O. R. (1972 a). Procedures for the mass rearing of a mermithid parasite of mosquitoes. Mosquito News 32, 226–30.Google Scholar
Petersen, J. J. & Willis, O. R. (1972 b). Results of preliminary field applications of Reesimermis nielseni (Mermithidae: Nematoda) to control mosquito larvae. Mosquito News 32, 312–16.Google Scholar
Petersen, J. J. & Willis, O. R. (1974 a). Experimental release of a mermithid nematode to control Anopheles mosquitoes in Louisiana. Mosquito News 34, 316–19.Google Scholar
Petersen, J. J. & Willis, O. R. (1974 b). Diximermis peterseni (Nematoda: Mermithidae): A potential biocontrol agent of Anopheles mosquito larvae. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 24, 20–3.Google Scholar
Petersen, J. J. & Willis, O. R. (1975). Establishment and recycling of a mermithid nematode for the control of mosquito larvae. Mosquito News 35, 526–32.Google Scholar
Petersen, J. J. & Willis, O. R. (1976). Experimental release of a mermithid nematode to control floodwater mosquitoes in Louisiana. Mosquito News 36, 339–42.Google Scholar
Platzer, E. G. & Brown, B. J. (1976). Physiological ecology of Reesimermis nielseni. Proceedings: International Invertebrate Pathology, Kingston, Canada pp. 263–7.Google Scholar
Platzer, E. G. & MacKenzie-Graham, L. L. (1978). Predators of Romanomermis culicivorax. Proceedings of the California Mosquito Vector Control Association 46, 93.Google Scholar
Platzer, E. G. & MacKenzie-Graham, L. L. (1980). Cyclops vernalis as a predator of the preparasitic stages of Romanomermis culicivorax. Mosquito News 40, 252–7.Google Scholar
Poinar, G. O. Jr. (1965). The bionomics and parasitic development of Tripius sciarae (Bovien) (Sphaerulariidae: Aphelenchoidea), a nematode parasite of sciarid flies (Sciaridae: Diptera). Parasitology 55, 559–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Poinar, G. O. Jr. (1968). Parasitic development of Filipjevimermis leipsandra Poinar and Welch (Mermithidae) in Diabrotica u. undecimpunctata (Chrysomelidae). Proceedings of Helminthological Society of Washington 35, 161–9.Google Scholar
Poinar, G. O. Jr. (1972). Nematodes of faculative parasites of insects. Annual Review of Entomology 17, 103–22.Google Scholar
Poinar, G. O. Jr. (1975). Description and biology of a new insect parasitic rhabditoid, Heterorhaditis bacteriophora n. gen., n. sp. (Rhabditida: Heterorhabditidae n. fam.). Nematologica 21, 463–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Poinar, G. O. Jr. (1977). Empidomermis cozii new genus, new species (Mermithidae: Nematoda), a parasite of Anopheles funestus (Culicidae: Diptera) in West Africa. Canadian Journal of Zoology 55, 1475–9.Google Scholar
Poinar, G. O. Jr. (1979) Nematodes for Biological Control of Insects. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press.Google Scholar
Poinar, G. O. Jr. & Doncaster, C. C. (1965). The penetration of Tripius sciarae (Spaerulariidae: Aphelenchoidea) into its insect host, Bradysia paupera Tuom. (Mycetophilidae: Diptera). Nematologica 11, 73–8.Google Scholar
Poinar, G. O. Jr., Hess, R., Hansen, E. & Hansen, J. (1979). Laboratory infection of blackflies (Simuliidae) and midge (Chironmidae) by the mosquito mermithid Romanomermis culicivorax Journal of Parasitology 65, 613–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Poinar, G. O. Jr., Lane, R. S. & Thomas, G. M. (1976). Biology and redescription of Pheromermis pachysomia (V. Linstow) n. gen. n. comb. (Nematoda: Mermithidae) a parasite of yellowjackets (Hymenoptera: Vespidae). Nematologica 22, 360–70.Google Scholar
Poinar, G. O. Jr. & Sanders, R. D. (1974). Description and bionomics of Octomyomermis troglodytis sp. n. (Nematoda: Mermithidae) parasitizing the western treehole mosquito Aedes sierrensis (Ludlow) (Diptera: Culicidae). Proceedings of the Helminthological Society of Washington 41, 37–41.Google Scholar
Reynolds, D. G. (1972). Experimental introduction of a microsporidian into a wild population of Culex pipiens fatigans Wied. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 46, 807–12.Google Scholar
Richardson, P. N. & Chanter, D. O. (1979). Phorid fly (Phoridae: Megaselia halterata) longevity and the dissemination of nematodes (Allantonematidae: Howardula husseyi) by parasitized females. Annals of Applied Biology 93, 1–11.Google Scholar
Richardson, P. N. & Hesling, J. J. (1977). Studies on an overwintering population of the mushroom phorid Megaselia halterata (Diptera: Phoridae) parasitized by Howardula husseyi (Nematoda: Allantonematidae). Annals of Applied Biology 86, 321–7.Google Scholar
Roberts, D. W. & van Lewken, W. (1973). Limited growth of a mermithid nematode culture in association with tissueculture cells. Proceedings of the International Colloquium on Insect Pathology and Microbial Control, Oxford, England 5, 91.Google Scholar
Ross, J. F. & Smith, S. M. (1976). A review of the mermithid parasites (Nematoda: Mermithidae) described from North American mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) with descriptions of three new species. Canadian Journal of Zoology 54, 1084–102.Google Scholar
Rubtsov, I. A. & Isaeva, N. M. (1975). Culicimermis schakhovii gen. et sp. n. (Mermithidae), a new parasite of mosquitoes. Vestnik Zoologii 1, 39–44.Google Scholar
Sanders, R. D., Stockstad, E. L. R. & Malatesta, C. (1973). Axenic growth of Reesimermis nielseni (Nematoda: Mermithidae) in insect tissue culture media. Nematologica 19, 567–8.Google Scholar
Schmidt, J. & All, J. N. (1978). Chemical attraction of Neoaplectana carpocapsae (Nematoda: Steinernematidae) to insect larvae. Environmental Entomology 7, 605–7.Google Scholar
Schmidt, J. & All, J. N. (1979). Attraction of Neoaplectana carpocapsae (Nematoda: Steinernematidae)tocommonexcretory products of insects. Environmental Entomology 8, 55–61.Google Scholar
Schmiege, D. C. (1963). The feasibility of using a neoaplectanid nematode for control of some forest insect pests. Journal of Economic Entomology 56, 427–31.Google Scholar
Simons, W. R. & Poinar, G. O. Jr. (1973). The ability of Neoaplectana carpocapsae (Steinernematidae: Nematoda) to survive extended periods of desiccation. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 22, 228–30.Google Scholar
Skireska, B. & Szadziewska, M. (1976). Laboratory tests for usability of the entomophilic nematodes Steinernematidae Chitwood et Chitwood 1937 in biological control of some noxious arthropods. Bulletin of the Institute of Marine and Tropical Medicine, Gdansic 27, 207–22.Google Scholar
Stoffolano, J. G. Jr. (1968). Distribution of the nematode Heterotylenchus autumnalis, a parasite of the face fly in New England with notes on its origin. Journal of Economic Entomology 61, 861–3.Google Scholar
Stoffolano, J. G. Jr. & Nickle, W. R. (1966). Nematode parasite (Heterotylenchus sp.) of face fly in New York State. Journal of Economic Entomology 59, 221–2.Google Scholar
Swain, R. B. (1945). The association of nematodes of the genus Diplogaster with white-fringed beetles. Journal of Economic Entomology 38, 488–90.Google Scholar
Swain, R. B., Littig, K. S., Bartlett, F. J. & Gordon, M. F. (1944). Studies on nematodes of the genus Neoaplectana – factors in the biological control of the white-fringed beetle. Special USDA Report, White-Fringed Beetle Investigation, Gulfport, Mississippi pp. 33.Google Scholar
Tanada, Y. & Reiner, C. (1962). The use of pathogens in the control of the corn earworm Heliothis zea (Boddie). Journal of Insect Pathology 4, 139–54.Google Scholar
Tedders, W. L., Weaver, D. J. & Wehunt, E. J. (1973). Pecan weevil: Suppression of larvae with the fungi Melarrhizium anisopliae and Beauveria bassiana and the nematode Neoaplectana dutkyi. Journal of Economic Entomology 66, 723–5.Google Scholar
Tsai, Y. & Grundmann, A. W. (1969). Reesimermis nielseni gen. et. sp. n. (Nematoda: Mermithidae) parasitizing mosquitoes in Wyoming. Proceedings of the Helminlhological Society of Washington 36, 61–7.Google Scholar
Webster, J. M. (1972) Nematodes and biological control. In Economic hematology (ed. Webster, J. M.). London: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Weiser, J. (1955). Neoaplectana carpocapsae n. sp. (Anguillulata, Steinernematinae), nový cizopasnik housenek obaleče jablečného, Carpocapsa pomonella L. Věstnik Ceskoslovenske Oslovenski Spolecnosti Zoologicke 19, 44–52.Google Scholar
Welch, H. E. (1960). Hydromermis churchillensis n. sp.(Nematoda: Mermithidae) from Churchill, Manitoba with observations on its incidence and bionomics. Canadian Journal of Zoology 38, 465–74.Google Scholar
Welch, H. E. & Briand, L. J. (1961 a). Test of the nematode DD-136 and an associated bacterium for control of the Colorado potato beetle, Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Say). Canadian Entomologist 93, 759–63.Google Scholar
Welch, H. E. & Briand, L. J. (1961 b). Field experiment on the use of a nematode for the control of vegetable crop insects. Proceedings of the Entomological Society, Ontario 91, 197–202.Google Scholar
Welch, H. E. & Bronskill, J. F. (1962). Parasitism of mosquito larvae by the nematode, DD-136 (Nematoda: Neoaplectanidae). Canadian Journal of Zoology 40, 1263–8.Google Scholar
Yakubovich, V. Y. (1978). The finding of a new mermithid species Culicimermis culicivora n. sp. in Aedes communis DeGeer in the Buryat USSR. Meditsenskaya Parazitologica 47, 107–8.Google Scholar