Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-tf8b9 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-23T13:09:11.993Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Pathophysiology of parasitic infections

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  23 August 2011

P. H. Holmes
P. H. Holmes
Affiliation:
Department of Veterinary Physiology, University of Glasgow Veterinary School, Bearsden Road, Glasgow G61 1QH
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Summary

Parasites can have a wide range of pathophysiological effects on the host. This review describes those associated with some parasites of major importance in man and animals. Haemoprotozoan diseases such as trypanosomiasis and malaria are primarily associated with anaemia. Such anaemias have a complex aetiology involving various mechanisms responsible for red cell destruction as well as possible defects in red cell production. In addition to these haematological effects these diseases are associated with marked disturbances in heart function and the nervous, immune and urinary systems. The other major groups of parasitic diseases are those associated with the gastrointestinal tract. The most advanced studies have been conducted on the pathophysiology of gastrointestinal nematode parasites of sheep and have revealed significant effects on feed intake, gastrointestinal function, and protein and energy metabolism. Similar studies have yet to be conducted in other hosts and parasitic diseases. There is also a need to examine in greater detail the factors which can modulate pathophysiological responses by the host to parasitic infections.

Type
Research Article
Information
Parasitology , Volume 94 , supplement S1: Symposia of the British Society for Parasitology Volume 24 Pathophysiological responses to parasites , January 1987 , pp. S29 - S51
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1987

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Abbott, E. M., Parkins, J. J. & Holmes, P. H. (1985a). Influence of dietary protein on parasite establishment and pathogenesis in Finn Dorset and Scottish Blackface lambs given a single moderate infection of Haemonchus contortus. Research in Veterinary Science 38, 6–13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Abbott, E. M., Parkins, J. J. & Holmes, P. H. (1985b). Influence of dietary protein on the pathophysiology of ovine haemonchosis in Finn Dorset Blackface lambs given a single moderate infection. Research in Veterinary Science 38, 54–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Abbott, E. M., Parkins, J. J. & Holmes, P. H. (1986). The effect of dietary protein on the pathophysiology of acute ovine haemonchosis. Veterinary Parasitology 20, 275-89, 291–306.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Abdalla, S. & Weatherall, D. J. (1982). The direct antiglobulin test in P. falciparum malaria. British Journal of Haematology 51, 415–25.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Abdalla, S., Weatherall, D. J., Wickramasinghe, S. N. & Hughes, M. (1980). The anaemia of P. falciparum malaria. British Journal of Haematology 46, 171–83.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Agu, W. E., Fabrell, J. P. & Soulsby, E. J. L. (1982). Pathogenesis of anaemia in hamsters infected with Leishmania donovani. Zeitschrift für Parasitenkunde 68, 27–32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Aikaira, M., Suzuki, M. & Gutierrez, Y. (1980). Pathology of Malaria. In Malaria, vol. 2. (ed. Kreier, J. P.), pp. 47–102. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Anderson, N. (1973). Trichostrongyloid infections of sheep in a winter rainfall region. II Epizootiological studies in the western district of Victoria. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture and Animal Husbandry 15, 167–72.Google Scholar
Anderson, N., Hansky, J. & Titchen, D. A. (1981). Effect of Ostertagia circumcincta infections on plasma gastrin in sheep. Parasitology 82, 761–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Andrade, I. A. (1983). Mechanisms of myocardial damage in Trypanosoma cruzi infection. In Cytopathology of Parasitic Disease, Ciba Foundation Symposium No. 99. pp. 214–233. Great Britain: Pitman.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Andrade, I. A. & Andrade, S. G. (1980). A patalogia da doenca de Chagas experimental no cao. Memorias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz 75, 77–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Armour, J., Bairden, K., Duncan, J., Jennings, F. W. & Parkins, J. J. (1979). Observations on ostertagiasis in young cattle over two grazing seasons, with special reference to plasma pepsinogen levels. Veterinary Record 105, 500–3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Armour, J., Jarrett, W. F. H. & Jennings, F. W. (1966). Experimental Ostertagia circumcincla in sheep. Development and pathogenesis of a single infection. American Journal of Veterinary Research 27, 1267–78.Google Scholar
Barger, I. A. & Southcott, W. H. (1975). Trichostronglylosis and wool growth. The wool growth response of resistant grazing sheep to larval challenge. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture and Animal Husbandry 15, 167–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barker, I. K. & Titchen, D. A. (1982). Gastric dysfunction in sheep infected with Trichostrongylus colubriformis, a nematode inhabiting the small intestine. International Journal for Parasitology 12, 345–56.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barret-Connor, E., Ugoretz, R. J. & Braude, A. I. (1973). Disseminated intravascular coagulation in trypanosomiasis. Archives of Internal Medicine 131, 574–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berry, C. I. & Dargie, J. D. (1976). The role of host nutrition on the pathogenesis of ovine fascioliasis. Veterinary Parasitology 2, 317–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bliss, D. H. & Todd, A. C. (1976). Milk production by Vermont diary cattle after deworming. Veterinary Medicine and Small Animal Clinician 68, 1034–8.Google Scholar
Boreham, P. F. L. (1985). Autocoids: Their release and possible role in pathogenesis of African trypanosomiasis. In Immunology and Pathogenesis of Trypanosomiasis (ed. Tizard, I.). pp. 45–66. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press Inc.Google Scholar
Bremner, K. C. (1969). Pathogenic factors in experimental bovine oesophagostomosis III. Demonstration of protein-losing enteropathy with 51Cr-albumin. Experimental Parasitology 24, 364–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Castro, G. A. (1981). Physiology of the gastrointestinal tract in the parasitized host. In Physiology of the Gastrointestinal Tract, (ed. Johnson, L. R.), pp. 1381–1406. New York: Raven Press.Google Scholar
Clark, I. A., Hunt, N. H. & Cowden, W. B. (1986). Oxygen-derived free radicals in the pathogenesis of parasitic disease. Advances in Parasitology 25, 1–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cohen, S. & Lambert, P. H. (1982). Malaria. In Immunology of Parasitic Infections. 2nd Edn. (ed. Cohen, S. and Warren, K. S.), pp. 422–474. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications.Google Scholar
Coop, R. L. & Angus, K. W. (1975). The effect of continuous doses of Trichostrongylus colubriformis larvae on the intestinal mucosa of sheep and on liver Vitamin A concentration. Parasitology 70, 1–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Coop, R. L., Sykes, A. R. & Angus, K. W. (1982). The effect of three levels of intake of Ostertagia circunicincta larvae on growth rate, food intake and body composition of growing lambs. Journal of Agricultural Science 90, 247–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crompton, D. W. T. (1984). Influence of parasitic infection on food intake. Federation Proceedings 43, 239–45.Google ScholarPubMed
Crompton, D. W. T. (1985). Chronic ascariasis and malnutrition. Parasitology Today 1, 47–52.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crouch, P. A. R. (1982). A review of intestinal parasitism and nutrition. Papua New Guinea Medical Journal 25, 43–9.Google ScholarPubMed
Dargie, J. D. (1975). Applications of radioisotope techniques to the study of red cell and plasma protein metabolism in helminth diseases of sheeep. In Pathogenic Processes in Parasitic Infections (ed. Taylor, A. E. R. and Muller, R.), pp. 1–26. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications.Google Scholar
Dargie, J. D. (1982). The influence of genetic factors on the resistance of ruminants to gastrointestinal nematode and trypanosome infections. In Animal Models in Parasitology (ed. Owen, D.), pp. 17–51. London: Macmillan Press Ltd.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dargie, J. D., Murray, P. K., Murray, M., Grimshaw, W. R. T. & McIntyre, W. I. M. (1979). Bovine trypanosomiasis: the red cell kinetics of N'dama and Zebu cattle infected with Trypanosoma congolense. Parasitology 78, 271–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Entrocasso, C, Parkins, J. J., Armour, J., Bairden, K. & McWilliam, P. N. (1986a). Production, parasitological and carcase evaluation studies in steers exposed to trichostrongyle infection and treated with a morantel bolus or fenbendazole in two consecutive grazing seasons. Research in Veterinary Science 40, 76–85.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Entrocasso, C, Parkins, J. J., Armour, J., Bairden, K. & McWilliam, P. N. (1986b). Metabolism and growth in housed calves given a morantel sustained release bolus and exposed to natural trichostrongyle infection. Research in Veterinary Science 40, 65–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Facer, C. A., Bray, R. S. & Brown, J, (1979). Direct Coombs antiglobulin reactions in Gambian children with Plasmodium falciparum malaria: I. Incidence and class specificity. Clinical and Experimental Immunology 35, 119–27.Google ScholarPubMed
Facer, C. A., Crosskey, J. M., Clarkson, M. J. & Jenkins, G. C. (1982). Immune haemolytic anaemia in bovine trypanosomiasis. Journal of Comparative Pathology 92, 393–401.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fayer, R., Lynch, G. P., Leek, R. G. & Gasbarre, L. C. (1983). Effects of sarcocystosis on milk production of dairy cows. Journal of Dairy Science 66, 904–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ferguson, A. & Jarrett, E. E. E. (1975). Hypersensitivity reactions in the small intestine: I. Thymus dependence of experimental partial villous atrophy. Gut 16, 114–17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fernando, N. A. (1982). Pathology and pathogenicity. In The Biology of the Coccidia (ed. Long, P. L.), pp. 287–327. London: Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd.Google Scholar
Fiennes, R. N. T.-W. (1954). Haematological studies in trypanosomiasis of cattle. Veterinary Record 66, 423–34.Google Scholar
Fioramonti, J., Sorraing, J. M., Licois, D. & Beuno, L. (1981). Intestinal motor and transit disturbances associated with experimental coccidiosis (Eimeria magna) in the rabbit. Annales de Recherches Veterinaires 12, 413–20.Google Scholar
Forsberg, C. M., Valli, V. E. O., Gentry, P. W. & Donworth, R. M. (1979). The pathogenesis of Trypanosoma congolense infection in calves. IV. The kinetics of blood coagulation. Veterinary Pathology 16, 229–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Forsum, E., Nesheim, M. C. & Crompton, D. W. T. (1981). Nutritional aspects of Ascaris infection in young protein-deficient pigs. Parasitology 83, 497–512.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Galvao-Castro, B., Hochmann, A. & Lambert, P. H. (1978). The role of the host immune response in the development of tissue lesions associated with African trypanosomiasis in mice. Clinical and Experimental Immunology 33, 12–24.Google ScholarPubMed
Gibson, T. E. (1963). The influence of nutrition on the relationships between gastrointestinal parasites and their hosts. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 22, 15–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Greenwood, B. M., Bradley-Moore, A. M., Palit, A. & Bryceson, A. D. M. (1972). Immunosuppression in children with malaria. Lancet 1, 169–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Greenwood, B. M. & Whittle, H. C. (1980). The pathogenesis of sleeping sickness. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 74, 716–25.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gregory, P. C. (1985). Parasitic infection and stomach motility: relation to intestinal motility and food intake. In Veterinary Research Communication Vol. 1. The Ruminant Stomach (ed. Ooms, L. A. A., Degryse, A. D. and Marsboom, R.), pp. 267–286. Janssen Research Foundation.Google Scholar
Gregory, P. C., Wenham, G.Poppi, D.Coop, R. L., Macrae, J. C. & Miller, S. J. (1985). The influence of a chronic subclinical infection of Trichostrongylus colubriformis on gastrointestinal motility and digesta flow in sheep. Parasitology 91, 381–96.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Halliday, G. J., Dalton, R. CAnderson, N. & Mulligan, W. (1965). Total body water and total body solids in cattle affected with ostertagiasis. British Veterinary Journal 121, 547–51.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hawkins, C. D. & Morris, R. S. (1978). Depression of productivity in sheep infected with Fasciola hepatica. Veterinary Parasitology 4, 341–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Herbert, W. J. & Inglis, M. D. (1973). Immunisation of mice against T. brucei infections by administration of released antigens absorbed to erythrocytes. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 67, 268.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holmes, P. H. (1976). The use of radioisotope tracer techniques in the study of the pathogenesis of trypanosomiasis. In Nuclear Techniques in Animal Production and Health, pp. 463–474. Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency.Google Scholar
Holmes, P. H., Abbott, E. M. & Parkins, J. J. (1986). Use of nuclear techniques to investigate the influence of host nutrition on the pathogenesis of ovine haemonchosis. In Nuclear Techniques aimed at improving Meat, Milk and Wool Production from Ruminant Animals. Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency.Google Scholar
Holmes, P. H., Dargie, J. D., Maclean, J. M. & Mulligan, W. (1968). The anaemia in fascioliasis: studies with 51Cr-labelled red cells. Journal of Comparative Pathology 78, 415–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Holmes, P. H. & Jennings, F. W. (1976). The effect of treatment on the anaemia of African trypanosomiasis. In The Pathophysiology of Parasitic Infections (ed. Soulsby, E. J. L.), pp. 199–210. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Holmes, P. H., Macaskill, J. A., Whitelaw, D. D., Jennings, F. W. & Urquhart, G. M. (1979). Immunological clearance of 75Se-labelled Trypanosoma brucei in mice. I. Aspects of the radiolabelling technique. Immunology 36, 415–20.Google ScholarPubMed
Holmes, P. H. & Maclean, J. M. (1971). The pathophysiology of ovine ostertagiasis: A study of the changes in plasma protein metabolism following single infections. Research in Veterinary Science 12, 265–271.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Holmes, P. H., Mamo, E.Thomson, A.Knight, P. A., Lucken, R.Murray, P. K., Murray, M., Jennings, F. W. & Urquhart, G. M. (1974). Immunosuppression in bovine trypanosomiasis. Veterinary Record 95, 86–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Holmes, P. H., Whitelaw, D. D., Dodman, N. H., Macaskill, J. A., Jennings, F. W. & Urquhart, G. M. (1978). Some effects of splenectomy on the pathogenesis of Trypanosoma congolense infections of rabbits and mice. Proceedings ofThe Fourth International Congress of Parasitology, Warsaw, Poland. Section F. pp. 8–9.Google Scholar
Holwill, M. E. J. (1965). Deformation of erythrocytes by trypanosomes. Experimental Cell Research 37, 306–11.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hope Cawdery, M. J. (1976). The effects of fascioliasis on ewe fertility. British Veterinary Journal 132, 568–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoskins, L. CWinawer, S. J., Broitman, S. A., Gottlieb, L. S. & Zamcheck, N. (1967). Clinical giardiasis and intestinal malabsorption. Gastroenterology 33, 265–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Houba, V. (1979). Immunologic aspects of renal lesions associated with malaria. Kidney International 16, 3–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Huan, C. N. (1975). Pathogenesis of the anaemia in African trypanosomiasis: characterization and purification of a haemolytic factor. Journal de Suisse Medicin 47, 1582–3.Google Scholar
Hudson, L. (1983). Immunopathogenesis of experimental Chagas' disease in mice: damage to the autonomic nervous system. In Cytopathology of Parasitic Disease. Ciba Foundation Symposium No. 99, pp. 234–251. Great Britain: Pitman.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hudson, L. (1985). Autoimmune phenomena in chronic Chagasic cardiopathy. Parasitology Today 1, 6–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hudson, L. & Britten, V. (1985). Immune response to South American Trypanosomiasis and its relationship to Chagas' Disease. British Medical Bulletin 41, 175–80.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jenkins, G. CMcCrorie, P.Forsberg, C. M. & Brown, J. L. (1980). Studies on the anaemia in rabbits infected with Trypanosoma brucei. I. Evidence for haemolysis. Journal of Comparative Pathology 90, 107–21.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jenkins, G. C. & Facer, C. A. (1985). Hematology of African Trypanosomiasis. In Immunology and Pathogenesis of Trypanosomiasis (ed. Tizard, I.), pp. 13–44. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press Inc.Google Scholar
Jennings, F. W., Murray, P. K., Murray, M. & Urqhart, G. M. (1974). Anaemia in trypanosomiasis: Studies in rats and mice infected with Trypanosoma brucei. Research in Veterinary Science 16, 70–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jennings, F. W., Whitelaw, D. D., Holmes, P. H., Chizyuka, H. G. B. & Urquhart, G. M. (1979). The brain as a source of relapsing Trypanosomal brucei infections in mice after chemotherapy. International Journal for Parasitology 75, 143–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, D. G. (1983). Intestinal enzyme activity in lambs chronically infected with Trichostrongylus colubriformis: effect of anthelmintic treatment. Veterinary Pathology 12, 79–89.Google ScholarPubMed
Joo, F. (1986). New aspects of the function of the cerebral endothelium. Nature, London 321, 197–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kazura, J. W. (1982). Immunology of Trichinella spiralis Infection, (ed. Cohen, S. and Warren, K.), pp. 654–675. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications.Google Scholar
Kirukamusoke, J. W. (1986). The hazard of malarial nephropathy. Parasitology Today 2, 119–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kierszenbaum, F. (1985). Is there autoimmunity in Chagas Disease? Parasitology Today 1, 4–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kimambo, A. E. (1985). Nutritional penalties associated with subclinical infection of lambs with the intestinal roundworm, Trichostrongylus colubriformis. Ph.D. thesis. University of Aberdeen.Google Scholar
Knowles, R. T., Montrose, M.Craig, T. M., Wagner, G. G. & Long, R. F. (1982). Clinical and serologieal evidence of bovine babesiosis and anaplasmosis in St. Lucia. Veterinary Parasitology 10, 307–11.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kroonen, J. E. G. M., Vertegen, M. W. A., Boon, J. H. & Van Der Hel, WT. (1986). Effect of infection with lungworms (Dictyocaulus viviparus) on energy and protein metabolism in growing calves. British Journal of Nutrition (in the Press).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leng, R. A. (1981). Nutrition and metabolism in parasitised and non-parasitised ruminants. In Isotopes and Radiation in Parasitology 4, 191–206. Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency.Google Scholar
Levinson, J. D. & Nastro, L. J. (1978). Giardiasis with total villous atrophy. Gastroenterology 74, 271–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McCauley, E. H., Majid, A. A. & Tayeb, A. (1984). Economic evaluation of the production impact of bovine schistosomiasis and vaccination in the Sudan. Preventive Veterinary Medicine 2, 735–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCrorie, P., Jenkins, G. C, Brown, J. L., & Ramsey, C. E., (1980). Studies on the anaemia in rabbits infected with Trypanosoma brucei II. Haematological studies on the role of the spleen. Journal of Comparative Pathology 90, 123–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MacDonald, T. T. & Ferguson, A. (1978). Small intestinal epithelial cell kinetics and protozoal infection in mice. Gastroenterology 74, 496–500.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mckellar, Q., Duncan, J. L., Armour, J. & McWilliam, P. (1986). Studies on the response to transplanted adult Ostertagia ostertagi in calves. Research in Veterinary Science (in the Press).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mackenzie, A. R. & Boreham, P. F. L. (1974). Autoimmunity in trypanosome infections. III. The antiglobulin (Coombs) tests. Acta Tropica 31, 360–8.Google Scholar
Mackenzie, A. R., Boreham, P. F. L. & Facer, C. A. (1973). Autoantibodies in African trypanosomiasis. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 67, 268.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mackenzie, P. K. I. & Cruickshank, J. G. (1973). Phagocytosis of erythrocytes and leucocytes in sheep infected with Trypanosoma congolense. Research in Veterinary Science 15, 256–62.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
MacRae, J. C, Smith, J. S., Sharman, G. A. M., Corrigall, W. & Coop, R. L. (1982). Energy metabolism of lambs infected with Trichostrongylus colubriformis. In Energy Metabolism in Farm Animals (ed. Ekern, A. and Sundstol, F.). pp. 112–115. EAAP Publ. No 29. The Agricultural University of Norway.Google Scholar
Maegraith, B. G. & Onabanjo, A. O. (1970). The effect of histamine in malaria. British Journal of Pharmacology 39, 755–64.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mamo, E. & Holmes, P. H. (1975). The erythrokinetics of Zebu cattle chronically infected with Trypanosoma congolense. Research in Veterinary Science 18, 105–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mansfield, J. M. (1981). Immunology and immunopathology of African trypanosomiasis. In Parasitic Diseases vol. 1, (ed. Mansfield, J. M.), Chapter. 4. New York: Marcel Dekker.Google Scholar
Maxie, M. G., Losos, G. J. & Tabel, H. (1979). Experimental bovine trypanosomiasis (Trypanosoma vivax and T. congolense). I. Symptomatology and clinical pathology. Tropenmedizin und Parasitologie 30, 274–82.Google Scholar
Mellors, A. (1985), Phospholipases of trypansomes. In Immunology and Pathogenesis of Trypanosomiasis (ed. Tizard, I.). pp. 67–74. Boca Raton. Florida: CRC Press Inc.Google Scholar
Morrison, W. I., Murray, M. & Mcintyre, W. I. M. (1981). Bovine trypanosomiasis. In Diseases of Cattle in the Tropics. Current Topics in Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, vol. 6, (ed. Ristie, M. and McIntyre, W. I. M.), pp. 469–497. London: Martinus Nijhoff Publisher.Google Scholar
Morrison, W. I., Murray, M.Sayer, P. D. & Preston, J. M. (1981). The pathogenesis of experimentally induced Trypanosoma brucei in the dog. I. Tissue and organ damage. American Journal of Pathology 102, 168–81.Google ScholarPubMed
Morrison, W. I., Murray, M.Whitelaw, D. D. & Sayer, P. D. (1983). The pathology of infection with Trypanosoma brucei: Disease syndromes in dogs and cattle resulting from severe tissue damage. In From Parasitic Infection to Parasitic Disease, Contributions to Microbiology and Immunology 7. 103–19.Google ScholarPubMed
Murray, P. K., Jennings, F. W., Murray, M. & Urquhart, G. M. (1974). The nature of immunosuppresion in Trypanosoma brucei infections in mice. I. The role of the macrophage. Immunology 27. 815–40.Google Scholar
Murray, M. & Morrison, W. I. (1979). Pathogenesis and pathology of African trypanosomiasis in domestic livestock. In Report of the Expert Consultation on Research on Trypanosomiasis, Appendix VIII, pp. 70–5. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization.Google Scholar
Naylor, D. C. (1971). The haematology and histology of Trypanosoma congolense infections in cattle. II Haematology (including symptoms). Tropical Animal Health and Production 3, 159–68.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nesheim, M. C. (1985). Nutritional aspects of Ascaris suum and A. lumbricoides infections. In Ascariasis and its Public Health Significance (ed. Crompton, D. W. T., Nesheim, M. C. and Pawlowski, Z. S.), pp. 147–160. London: Taylor & Francis.Google Scholar
Noyes, W. D., Srichakul, T., Chawanakul, V., Chaisiripumkeeree, W. & Dunn, C. D. R. (1982). Erythropoietin levels in the anaemia of malaria. International Congress of Haematology and Blood Transfusion, Budapest. Abstract No. TU. 247.Google Scholar
Oakley, G. A., Owen, B. & Knapp, N. H. H. (1979). Production effects of subclinical liver fluke infections in growing dairy heifers. Veterinary Record 104, 503–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Parkins, J. J., Holmes, P. H. & Bremner, K. (1973). The pathophysiology of ovine ostertagiasis: some nitrogen balance and digestibility studies. Research in Veterinary Science 14, 21–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pasvol, G. & Wilson, R. J. M. (1982). The interaction of malaria parasites with red blood cells. British Medical Bulletin 38, 133–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Piessens, W. F. & Mackenzie, C. D. (1982). Immunology of lymphatic filariasis and onchocerciasis. In Immunology of Parasitic Infections 2nd Edn (ed. Cohen, S. and Warren, K.), pp. 622–653. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications.Google Scholar
Poltera, A. A. (1980). Immunopathological and chemotherapeutic studies in experimental trypanosomiasis with special reference to the heart and brain. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 74, 706–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Poltera, A. A. (1985). Pathology of human African trypanosomiasis with reference to experimental African trypanosomiasis and infections of central nervous system. British medical Bulletin 41. 169–74.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Poltera, A. A., Cox, J. N. & Owor, R. (1976). Pancarditis involving the conducting system and all valves in human African trypanosomiasis. British Heart Journal 38, 827–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Poppi, D. P., Macrae, J. C. & Corrigall, W. (1981). Nitrogen digestion in sheep infected with intestinal parasites. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 40, 116A.Google Scholar
Randall, R. W. & Gibbs, H. C. (1981). Effect of clinical and subclinical gastrointestinal helminthiasis on digestion and energy metabolism in calves. American Journal of Veterinary Research 42, 1730–4.Google ScholarPubMed
Randell, W. F. & Bradley, R. E. (1980). Effects of hexachlorethane on the milk yields of dairy cows in North Florida infected with Fasciola hepatica. American Journal of Veterinary Research 41, 262–4.Google ScholarPubMed
Rest, J. R. (1983). The pathogenesis of cerebral malaria in golden hamsters and inbred mice. In From Parasitic Infection to Parasitic Disease, Contributions to Microbiology and Immunology 7, 139–46.Google ScholarPubMed
Ritchie, J. D. S., Anderson, N., Armour, J., Jarrett, W. F. H., Jennings, F. W. & Urquhart, G. M. (1966). Experimental Ostertagia ostertagi infections in calves: parasitology and pathogenesis of a single infection. American Journal of Veterinary Research 27, 659–67.Google ScholarPubMed
Roseby, F. B. (1970). The effect of fascioliasis on the wool production of merino sheep. Australian Veterinary Journal 46, 361–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roseby, F. B. (1977). Effects of Trichostrongylus colubriformis (Nematoda) on the nutrition and metabolism of sheep. III Digesta flow and fermentation. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 28, 155–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rowe, J. B., Abbott, E. M., Dargie, J. D. & Holmes, P. H. (1982). The effect of haemonchosis and blood loss in the abomasum on N digestion in sheep. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 41, 74A.Google Scholar
Ruff, M. D. (1974). Reduced transport of methionine in intestines of chickens infected with Eimeria necatrix. Journal of Parasitology 60, 838–43.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Santos-Buch, C. A. & Acosta, A. M. (1985). Pathology of Chagas' Disease. In Immunology and Pathogenesis of Trypanosomiasis (ed. Tizard, I.), pp. 145–184. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press Inc.Google Scholar
Schmidt, H. (1983). The pathogenesis of trypanosomiasis of the C.N.S. Virchows Archive of Pathological Anatomy and Histology (Pathol, Anat) 339, 333–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schmidt, H. & Sayer, P. (1982). Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense infection in vervet monkeys. 1. Parasitologic, hematologic, immunologic and histologic results. Tropenmedizin und Parasitologie 33, 249–54.Google Scholar
Seed, J. R. & Hall, J. E. (1985). Pathophysiology of African trypanosomiasis. In Immunology and Pathogenesis of Trypanosomiasis (ed. Tizard, I.), pp. 1–12. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press Inc.Google Scholar
Seed, T. M. & Kreier, J. P. (1980). Erythrocyte destruction mechanisms in malaria. In Malaria, vol 2: Pathology, Vector Studies and Culture, (ed. Kreier, J. P.), pp. 1–46, New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Smithers, S. R. & Doenhoff, M. J. (1982). Schistosomiasis. In Immunology of Parasitic Infections, 2nd Edn, (ed. Cohen, S. and Warren, K.), pp. 527–607. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications.Google Scholar
Steel, J. W. (1974). Pathophysiology of gastrointestinal nematode infections in the ruminant. Proceedings of the Australian Society of Animal Production 10, 139–47.Google Scholar
Steel, J. W. (1978). Inter-relationships between gastrointestinal helminth infection, nutrition and impaired productivity. In Recent Advances in Animal Nutrition (ed. Farrell, D. J.), pp. 98–110. Armidale: University of New England.Google Scholar
Steel, J. W., Jones, W. O. & Symons, L. E. A. (1982). Effects of a concurrent infection of Trichostrongylus colubriformis on the productivity of physiological and metabolic responses of lambs infected with Ostertagia circumcincta. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 33, 131–10.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sykes, A. R. & Coop, R. L. (1976). Intake and utilisation of food by growing lambs with parasitic damage to the small intestine caused by daily dosing with Trichostrongylus colubriformis larvae. Journal of Agricultural Science 86, 507–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sykes, A. R. & Coop, R. L. (1977). Intake and utilisation of food by growing sheep with abomasal damage caused by daily dosing with Ostertagia circumcincta larvae. Journal of Agricultural Science 88, 671–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Symons, L. E. A. (1976). Malabsorption. In Pathophysiology of Parasitic Infection (ed. Soulsby, E. J. L.), pp. 11–21. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Symons, L. E. A. (1985). Anorexia: occurrence, pathophysiology and possible causes in parasitic infections. Advances in Parasitology 24, 103–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Symons, L. E. A. & Hennessy, D. L. (1981). Cholecystokinin and anorexia in sheep infected by the intestinal nematode Trichostongylus colubriformis. International Journal for Parasitology 11, 55–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Symons, L. E. A. & Jones, W. O. (1983). Intestinal protein synthesis in guinea pigs infected with Trichostrongylus colubriformis. International Journal for Parasitology 13, 309–12.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Szarfman, A. (1986). Autoimmunity in Chagas Disease. Parasitology Today 2, 22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Terry, R. J., Hudson, K. M., Shikazi, M. F. & May, D. (1980). Secondary immunodeficiencies associated with African trypanosomiasis. In Isotopes and Radiation in Research on Animal Diseases and their Vectors, pp. 133–147. Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency.Google Scholar
Thomas, R. J. & Ali, D. A. (1983). The effect of Haemonchus contortus infection on the pregnant and lactating ewe. International Journal for Parasitology 13, 393–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Titchen, D. A. (1982). The role of hormones in the reactions of the host to enteric parasites. In Parasites-Their World and Ours (ed. Methrick, D. F. and Desser, S. S.), pp. 244–245. Amsterdam: Elsevier Medical press.Google Scholar
Tizard, I. R., Holmes, W. L. & Nielsen, K. (1978). Mechanisms of the anaemia in trypanosomiasis: studies on the role of the haemolytic fatty acids derived from Trypanosoma congolense. Tropenmedizin und Parasitologie 29, 108–14.Google ScholarPubMed
Tizard, I.Nielsen, K. H., Seed, J. R. & Hall, J. E (1978). Biologically active products from African trypanosomiasis. Microbiological Reviews 42, 661–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tubbs, H. (1980). Endotoxin in human and murin malaria. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 74, 121–3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tzipori, S.Smith, M.Halpin, C., Angus, K. W., Shebwood, D. & Campbell, I. (1983). Experimental cryptosporidiosis in calves: clinical manifestations and pathological findings. Veterinary Record 112, 116–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weatherall, D. J. & Abdalla, S. (1982). The anaemia of Plasmodium falciparum malaria. British Medical Bulletin 38, 147–51.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weisbrodt, N. W. & Castro, G. A. (1977). Intestinal myoelectric activity of the dog during hookworm infection. Federation Proceedings 36, 595.Google Scholar
Wellde, B. T., Chumo, D. A., Adoyo, M.Kovatch, R. M., Mwongela, G. N. & Opiyo, E. A. (1983). Haemorrhagic syndrome in cattle associated with Trypanosoma vivax infection. Tropical Animal Health and Production 15, 95–102.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wellde, B. T., Kovatch, R. M., Chumo, D. A. & Wykoff, D. E. (1978). Trypanosoma congolense: thrombocytopaenia in experimentally infected cattle. Experimental Parasitology 45. 26–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Whitelaw, D. D., Scott, J. M., Reid, H. W., Holmes, P. H., Jennings, F. W. & Urquhart, G. M. (1979). Immunosuppression in bovine trypanosomiasis: Studies with louping-ill vaccine. Research in Veterinary Science 26, 102–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Whitlock, J. H. (1949). The relationship of nutrition to the development of trichostrongylidoses. Cornell Veterinarian 39, 146–82.Google Scholar
Williams, J. F. (1982). Cestode infections. In Immunology of Parasitic Infections, 2nd Edn, (ed. Cohen, S. and Warren, K.), pp. 676–714. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications.Google Scholar
Woo, P. T. K. & Kobayashi, A. (1975). Studies on the anaemia in experimental African trypanosomiasis. I. A preliminary communication on the mechanism of the anaemia. Annales de la Société Belge de Medecine Tropicale 55, 37–45.Google Scholar
Yakoob, A.Holmes, P. H. & Armour, J. (1983). The pathophysiology of gastrointestinal trichostrongyles in sheep: plasma losses and changes in plasma pepsinogen levels associated with parasitic challenge of immune animals. Research in Veterinary Science 34, 305–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed