Hostname: page-component-f554764f5-fnl2l Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-04-09T10:34:24.456Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Experiences with vaccines against cutaneous leishmaniasis: of men and mice

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  06 April 2009

Farrokh Modabber
Farrokh Modabber
Affiliation:
UNDP/World Bank WHO Special Programme for Research and Training in Tropical Diseases, World Health Organization, CH 1211, Geneva 27, Switzerland
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Summary

The need for a vaccine(s) against cutaneous leishmaniasis and the populations at risk for whom such vaccines should be developed are briefly discussed. The current human vaccine studies are reviewed, as are some experimental mouse studies with emphasis on Leishmania major infection relevant to vaccine development. Based on the information available from the mouse model and those data which are being sought in human studies, the benign nature of the cutaneous disease, the ease with which L. major can be manipulated to yield the required material, and the ongoing practice of leishmanization which allows rapid evaluation of candidate vaccine(s), it is suggested that a vaccine, at least against L. major, is imminent in the not too distant future.

Keywords

cutaneous leishmaniasisvaccinesLeishmania majorhumansmice
Type
Research Article
Information
Parasitology , Volume 98 , supplement S1: Symposia of the British Society for Parasitology Volume 26:Vaccines and vaccination strategies , January 1989 , pp. S49 - S60
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1989

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

REFERENCES

Alexander, J. (1988). Sex differences and crossimmunity in DBA/2 mice with cutaneous leishmaniasis correlates with the capacity to generate interleukin 3 in response to Leishmania antigen in vitro. Cellular Immunology 111, 66–76.Google Scholar
Alexander, J. & Kaye, P. M. (1985). Immunoregulatory pathways in murine leishmaniasis: different regulatory control during Leishmania mexicana mexicana and Leishmania major infections. Clinical and Experimental Immunology 61, 674–82.Google ScholarPubMed
Antunes, F., Carvalho, C., Tavares, L., Botas, J., Forte, M., Del Rio, A. M., Dutschmann, L., Costa, A., Abranches, P., Pereira, C. S., Peiva, J. E. D., Araujo, F. C. & Baptista, A. (1987). Visceral leishmaniasis recrudescence in a patient with AIDS. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 81, 595.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Antunes, C. M. F., Mayrink, W., Magalhaes, P. A., Costa, A., Melo, M. N., Dias, M., Michalick, M. S. M., Williams, P., Lima, A. O., Vierra, J. B. F. & Schetini, A. P. M. (1986). Controlled field trials of a vaccine against New World cutaneous leishmaniasis. International Journal of Epidemiology 15, 572–80.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arnot, D. E. & Barker, D. C. (1981). Biochemical identification of cutaneous leishmaniasis by analysis of kinetoplast DNA. II. Sequence homologies in Leishmania kDNA. Molecular Biochemistry and Parasitology 3, 47–56.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Badaro, R., Carvalho, E. M., Rocha, H., Queiroz, A. C. & Jones, T. C. (1986 a). Leishmania donovani: an opportunistic microbe associated with progressive disease in three immunocompromised patients. Lancet, i, 647–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Badaro, R., Jones, T. C., Carvalho, E. M., Sampaio, D., Reed, S. G., Barral, A., Teixeira, R. & Johnson, W. D. Jr (1986 b). New perspectives on a subclinical form of visceral leishmaniasis. Journal of Infectious Diseases 154, 1003–11.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Badaro, R., Jones, T. C., Lorenço, R., Cerf, B. J., Sampaio, D., Carvalho, E. M., Rocha, H., Teixeiras, R. & Johnson, W. D. Jr (1986 c). A prospective study of visceral leishmaniasis in an endemic area of Brazil. Journal of Infectious Diseases 154, 639–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Behin, R. & Louis, j. (1984). Immune response to Leishmania. Critical Reviews in Tropical Medicine 2, 141–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Behin, R., Mauel, J. & Sordat, B. (1979). Leishmania tropica: pathogenicity and in vitro macrophage function in strains of inbred mice. Experimental Parasitology 48, 81–90.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blackwell, J. M. (1985). Receptors and recognition mechanisms of Leishmania species. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 79, 606–12.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blackwell, J., McMahon-Pratt, D. & Shaw, J. (1986). Molecular biology of Leishmania. Parasitology Today 2, 45–54.Google Scholar
Button, L. L. & McMaster, W. R. (1988). Molecular cloning of the major surface antigen of Leishmania. Journal of Experimental Medicine 167, 724–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Celeste, B. J. & Guimaraes, M. C. (1988). Growth curves of Leishmania braziliensis braziliensis promastigotes and surface antigen expression before and after adaptation to Schneider's Drosophila medium as assessed by anti-Leishmania human sera. Revista do Instituto de Medicina Tropical de São Paulo 30, 63–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chang, C. S., Inserra, T. J., Kink, H. A., Fong, D. & Chang, K. P. (1986). Expression and size heterogeneity of a 63 kilodalton membrane glycoprotein during growth and transformation of Leishmania mexicana amazonensis. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology 18, 197–210.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Christensen, H. A. & Vasquez, A. M. (1981). Susceptibility of Aotus trivirgatus to Leishmania braziliensis and L. mexicana. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 30, 54–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clauvel, J. P., Couderc, L. J., Belmin, J., Daniel, M. T., Rabian, C. & Seligman, M. (1986). Visceral leishmaniasis complicating acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 80, 1010–11.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Colle, J. H., Truffa-Bacchi, P., Chedid, L. & Modabber, F. (1983). Lack of a general immunosuppression during L. tropica infection in BALB/c mice: augmented antibody response to thymo-independent antigens and polyclonal activation. Journal of Immunology 131, 1492–5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Convit, J., Aranzazu, N., Ulrich, M., Pinardi, M. E., Reyes, O. & Alvarado, J. (1982). Immunotherapy with a mixture of Mycobacterium leprae and BCG in different forms of leprosy and Mitsuda-negative contacts. International Journal of Leprosy 50, 415–24.Google ScholarPubMed
Convit, J., Castellano, P. L., Rondon, A., Pinardi, M. E., Ulrich, M., Castes, M., Bloom, B. & Garcia, L. (1987). Immunotherapy versus chemotherapy in localised cutaneous leishmaniasis. Lancet i, 401–4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dennis, V. A., Chapman, W. L. Jr, Hanson, W. L. & Lujan, R. (1985). Leishmania donovani: clinical, hematologic and hepatic changes in squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus). Journal of Parasitology 71, 576–82.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dennis, V. A., Lujan, R., Chapman, W. L. Jr & Hanson, W. L. (1986). Leishmania donovani: cellular and humoral immune responses after primary and challenge infections in squirrel monkeys, Saimiri sciureus. Experimental Parasitology 61, 319–34.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Djoko-Tamnou, J., Leclerc, C., Modabber, F. & Chedid, L. (1981). Studies on visceral Leishmania tropica infection in BALB/c mice. 1. Clinical features and cellular changes. Clinical Experimental Immunology 46, 493–8.Google ScholarPubMed
Etges, R. J., Bouvier, J., Hoffman, R. & Bordier, C. (1985). Evidence that the major surface proteins of three Leishmania species are structurally related. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology 14, 395–400.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Feng, Z. Y., Louis, J. A., Kindler, V., Pedrazzini, T., Eliason, J., Behin, R. & Vassalli, P (1988). Aggravation of experimental cutaneous leishmaniasis in mice by administration of interleukin 3. European Journal of Immunology 18, 1245–51.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Franco-Vicario, R., De Heredia, J. M. B., Rojo, P. & Hermosa, C. (1987). Leishmaniosis asociada al sindrome de la immunodeficiencia acquirida. Medicina Clinica 88, 565.Google Scholar
Franke, E. D., McGreevy, P. B., Katz, P. & Sacks, D. L. (1985). Growth cycle-dependent generation of complement-resistant Leishmania promastigotes. Journal of Immunology 134, 2713–18.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frommel, D., Ogunkolade, W., Vouldoukis, I. & Monjour, L. (1988). Vaccine-induced immunity against leishmaniasis in BALB/c mice. Infection and Immunity 56, 843–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Giannini, M. S. (1974). Effects of promastigote growth phase, frequency of subculture, and host age on promastigote-initiated infections with Leishmania donovani in the golden hamster. Journal of Protozoology 21, 521–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Githure, J. I., Reid, G. D. F., Benhazim, A. A., Anjili, C. O., Shatry, A. M. & Hendricks, L. D. (1987). Leishmania major: the suitability of East African nonhuman primates as animal models for cutaneous leishmaniasis. Experimental Parasitology 64, 438–47.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Greenblatt, C. L. (1980). The present and future of vaccination for cutaneous leishmaniasis. In New Developments with Human and Veterinary Vaccines (ed. Mizrahi, A., Hertman, I., Klinberg, M. A. and Kohn, A.), pp. 259–85. New York: Alan R. Liss.Google Scholar
Greenblatt, C. L. (1988). Cutaneous leishmaniasis: the prospects for a killed vaccine. Parasitology Today 4, 53–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Handman, E., Ceredig, R. & Mitchell, G. F. (1979). Murine cutaneous Leishmaniasis: disease patterns in intact and nude mice of various genotypes and examination of some differences between normal and infected macrophages. Australian Journal of Experimental Biology and Medical Science 57, 9–29.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Handman, E., Greenblatt, C. L. & Goding, j. w. (1984). An amphipathic sulphated glyucoconjugate of Leishmania: characterization with monoclonal antibodies. European Molecular Biology Organization Journal 3, 2301–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Handman, E. & Mitchell, G. F. (1985). Immunization with Leishmania receptor for macrophages protects mice against cutaneous leishmaniasis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 5910–14.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Handman, E. & Mitchell, G. F. (1987). Leishmania-macrophage interaction: role of parasite molecules in infection and host protection. In Molecular Strategies of Parasitic Invasion (ed. Agabian, N.Goodman, H. and Nogueira, M.), pp. 493–500. New York: Alan K. Liss.Google Scholar
Handman, E., Schnur, L. F., Spithill, T. W. & Mitchell, G. F. (1986). Passive transfer of Leishmania lipopolysaccharide confers parasite survival in macrophages. Journal of Immunology 137, 3608–13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heyneman, D. (1971). Immunology of leishmaniasis. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 44, 499–514.Google ScholarPubMed
Hoover, D. L. & Nacy, C. A. (1984). Macrophage activation to kill L. tropica: defective intracellular killing of amastigotes by macrophages elicited with sterile inflammatory agents. Journal of Imniunology 132, 1487.Google Scholar
Howard, J. G., Hale, C. & Liew, F. Y. (1980 a). Immunological regulation of experimental cutaneous leishmaniasis. I. Immunogenetic aspects of susceptibility to Leishmania tropica in mice. Parasite Immunology 2, 303–14.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Howard, J. G., Hale, C. & Liew, F. Y. (1980 b). Immunological regulation of experimental cutaneous leishmaniasis. III. The nature and significance of specific suppression of cell-mediated immunity in mice highly susceptible to L. tropica, Journal of Experimental Medicine 152, 594–607.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Howard, J. G., Nicklin, S., Hale, C. & Liew, F. Y. (1982). Prophylactic immunization against experimental leishmaniasis. I. Protection induced in mice genetically vulnerable to fatal Leishmania tropica infection. Journal of Immunology 129, 2002–12.Google ScholarPubMed
Howard, K. M., Sayers, G. & Miles, M. A. (1987). Leishmania donovani metacyclic promastigotes: transformation in vitro, lectin agglutination, complement resistance and infectivity. Experimental Parasitology 64, 147–56.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jacobs, W. H. Jr, Tuckman, M. & Bloom, B. R. (1987). Introduction of foreign DNA into mycobacteria using a shuttle plasmid. Nature, London 327, 532–5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jaffe, C. & McMahon-Pratt, D. (1983). Monoclonal antibodies specific for Leishmania tropica. Journal of Immunology 131, 1987–93.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kaufmann, S. H. E. & Flesch, I. E. A.Cell-mediated immunity, immunodeficiency and microbial infections. Current Topics in Infectious Diseases and Clinical Microbiology (in the Press).Google Scholar
Kellina, O. I. (1973). Differences of susceptibility of inbred mice of different strains to L. tropica major. Medical Parasitology 42, 279–80.Google Scholar
Keithly, J. A. & Bienen, E. J. (1981). Infectivity of Leishmania donovani primary culture promastigotes for golden hamsters. Acta Tropica 38, 85–9.Google ScholarPubMed
Killick-Kendrick, R., Bryceson, A. D. M., Peters, W., Evans, D. A., Leaney, A. J. & Rioux, J.-A. (1985). Zoonotic cutaneous leishmaniasis in Saudi Arabia: lesions healing naturally in man followed by a second infection with the same zymodeme. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 79, 363–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lainson, R. & Bray, R. S. (1966). Studies on the immunology and serology of leishmaniasis. II. Cross-immunity experiments among different forms of American cutaneous leishmaniasis in monkeys. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 60, 526–32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lainson, R. & Shaw, J. J. (1977). Leishmaniasis in Brazil. XII. Observations on cross-immunity in monkeys and man infected with Leishmania mexicana mexicana, L. m. amazonensis, L. braziliensis braziliensis, L. b. guyanensis, and L. b. panamensis. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 80, 29–35.Google Scholar
Leclerc, C., Modabber, F., Deriaud, F. & Chedid, L. (1981). Systemic infection of Leishmania tropica (major) in various strains of mice. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 75, 851–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Liew, F. Y. (1986). Cell-mediated immunity in experimental cutaneous leishmaniasis. Parasitology Today 2, 264–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Liew, F. Y., Hale, C. & Howard, J. G. (1982). Immunologic regulation of experimental cutaneous leishmaniasis. V. Characterization of effector and specific suppressor T cells. Journal of Immunology 128, 1917–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Liew, F. Y., Howard, J. G. & Hale, C. (1984). Prophylactic immunization against experimental leishmaniasis. III. Protection against fatal Leishmania tropica infection induced by irradiated promastigotes involves Lyt-1 ± 2-T cells that do not mediate cutaneous DTH. Journal of Immunology 132, 456–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lima, G. C., Engers, H. D. & Louis, J. A. (1984). Adoptive transfer of delayed type hypersensitivity reactions specific for Leishmania major antigens to normal mice using murine T-cell populations and clones generated in vitro. Clinical and Experimental Immunology 576, 130–8.Google Scholar
Locksley, R. M., Heinzel, F. P., Sadick, M. B., Holaday, B. J. & Gardner, K. D. Jr (1987). Murine cutaneous leishmaniasis: susceptibility correlates with differential expansion of helper T-cell subsets. Twentieth Forum in Immunology, Annales de l'Institut Pasteur/Immunologie 138, 744–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lohoff, M., Matzner, C. & Rollingholl, M. (1988). Polyclonal B-cell stimulation by L3T4 + T cells in experimental leishmaniasis. Infection and Immunity 56, 2120–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Louis, J. & Milon, G. (1987). Immunology of experimental leishmaniasis. Twentieth Forum in Immunology, Annales de l'Institut Pasteur/Immunologie 138, 219–27.Google Scholar
Marsden, P. D. (1986). Mucosal leishmaniasis (‘espundia’ Escomel, 1911). Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 80, 859–76.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Martinez-Fernandez, R., Diaz, G. J. D., Sanchez, G. J., Carmena, C. E., Varela, L. & Navas, A. F. (1987). Leishmaniasis visceral en pacientes adictos a drogos por via parenteral, VIH positivos. Medicine Clinica (Barcelona) 88, 509–11.Google Scholar
Mauel, J. (1982). Recent advances in the immunology of leishmanial infections (with particular reference to the problem of vaccination). Pontificiae Academia Scientiarum Scripta Varia 47, 91–112.Google Scholar
Mauel, J. & Behin, R. (1987). Immunity: clinical and experimental. In The Leishmaniases (ed. Peters, W. and Killick-Kendrik, R.), vol. 2, pp. 731–91. London: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Mayrink, W., Williams, P., Da Costa, C. A., Magalhaes, P. A., Melo, M. N., Dias, M., Lima, A. O., Michalick, M. S. M., Carvalho, E. F., Barros, G. C., Sessa, P. A. & De Alencar, J. E. (1985). An experimental vaccine against American dermal leishmaniasis: experience in the State of Espirito Santo, Brazil. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 79, 259–69.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gonzalez, Medrano F., Lorenzo, A. A. & Perez, B. J. L. (1986). Leishmaniosis visceral de curso fatal asociada infección por HTLV-III. Medicina Clinica (Barcelona) 87, 780–1.Google Scholar
Melo, M. N., Williams, P., Williams, P., Magalhaesrocha, N. M., Baba, E. H., Mayrink, W., Michalick, M. S. M., Da Costa, C. A., Diaz, H. & Magalhaes, P. A. (1987). The change of behaviour of two strains of Leishmania after cultivation in a defined medium. Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 82, 557–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Milon, G., Titus, R. G., Cerottini, J. C., Marchal, G. & Louis, J. A. (1986). Higher frequency of L. major- specific L3T4 + T cells in susceptible mice as compared with resistant CBA mice. Journal of Immunology 136, 1467.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mirkovich, G. F., Galelli, A., Allison, A. C. & Modabber, F. (1986). Increased myelopoiesis during L. major infection in mice: generation of ‘safe target’, a possible way to evade the effector immune mechanism. Clinical Experimental Immunology 64, 1–7.Google Scholar
Mitchell, G. F. (1984). Host-protective immunity and its suppression in a parasitic disease: murine cutaneous leishmaniasis. Immunology Today 5, 224–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mitchell, G. F., Curtis, J. M., Handman, E. & McKenzie, I. F. C. (1980). Cutaneous leishmaniasis in mice: disease patterns in reconstituted nude mice of several genotypes infected with Leishmania tropica. Australian Journal of Experimental Biology and Medical Science 58, 521–32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mitchell, G. F. & Handman, E. (1986). The glycoconjugate derived from a L. major receptor for macrophages is a suppressogenic, disease-promoting antigen in murine cutaneous leishmaniasis. Parasite Immunology 8, 255–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mitchell, G. F. & Handman, E. (1987). Heterologous protection in murine cutaneous leishmaniases. Immunology and Cell Biology 65, 387–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mitchell, G. F., Handman, E. & Spithill, T. w. (1984). Vaccination against cutaneous leishmaniasis in mice using nonpathogenic cloned promastigotes of Leishmania major and importance of route of injection. Australian Journal of Experimental Biology and Medical Science 62, 145–53.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mitchell, G. F., Handman, E., Moll, H., Mconville, M. J., Spithill, T. W., Kidane, G. Z., Samaras, N. & Elhay, M. J. (1987). Resistance and susceptibility of mice to Leishmania major: a view from Melbourne. Annales de l'Institut Pasteur/Immunologie 138, 738–43.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Modabber, F. (1987). A model for the mechanism of sensitivity of BALB/c mice to L. major and premunition in leishmaniases. Annales de l'Institut Pasteur/Immunologie 38, 781–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Modabber, F. Z., Alimohammadian, A., Khamesipour, A., Pourmand, M. H., Kamali, M. H. & Nasseri, M. (1980). Studies on the genetic control of visceral leishmaniasis in BALB/c mice by L. tropica. In Genetic Control of Natural Resistance to Infection and Malignancy (ed. Skamène, E., Kongshaven, P. A. L. and Landy, S. M.), pp. 29–37. New York: Academic Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Monjour, L., Ogunkolade, W., Pointet, P. & Vouldoukis, I. (1985). Parasitologie animale. Efficacité de Ia vaccination de Ia souris C57 BL/6 contre l'infection par différentes espèces de Leishmania Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences, Paris 18, 803–6.Google Scholar
Monjour, L., Ogunkolade, W., Vouldoukis, I., Roseto, A., Berneman, A. & Frommel, D. (1986). Immunoprophylaxis against Leishmania infection with a semi-purified antigen. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 80, 1013.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mosmann, T. R. & Coffman, R. L. (1987). Two types of mouse helper T cell clone. Implications for immune regulation. Immunology Today 8, 223–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Muller, I., Pedrazzini, T., Farrell, J. P. & Louis, J. (1989). T-cell responses and immunity to experimental infection with Leishmania major. Annual Review of Immunology 7 (in the Press).CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mulliez, PH., Dabouz, R., Demory, J. L., Darras, A. & Crinquette, J. (1987). Une observation de leishmaniosa chez un malade traite par corticoides pour sarcoidose. Médecine et Maladies Infectieuses 6/7, 412–13CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nadim, A. & Javadian, E. (1988). Leishmanization in the Islamic Republic of Iran. In Research on Control Strategies for the Leishmaniases (ed. Walton, B., Wijeyaretne, P. M. and Modabber, F.), pp. 336–9. Ottawa: International Development Research Centre.Google Scholar
Nasseri, M. & Modabber, F. (1979). Generalized infection and lack of delayed hypersensitivity in BALB/c mice infected with Leishmania tropica major. Infection and Immunity 26, 611–14.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pacheco, R. S., Grimaldi, G. Jr & Morel, C. M. (1987). Inhibition of growth of Leishmania mexicana mexicana by Leishmania mexicana amazonensis during ‘in vitro’ co-cultivation. Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 82, 537–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Peireira, L. H., Melo, A. L., Mayrink, W. & De Resende, D. M. D. (1988). A marmoset model for some New World dermatotropic leishmaniases. Parasitologia 30, (in the Press).Google Scholar
Perez, H., Labrador, F. & Torrealba, J. W. (1979). Variations in the response of five strains of mice to Leishmania mexicana. International Journal for Parasitology 9, 27.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Preston, P. M., Carter, R. L., Leuchars, E., Davies, A. J. S. & Dumonde, D. C. (1972). Experimental cutaneous leishmaniasis. III. Effects of thymectomy on the course of infection of CBA mice with Leishmania tropica. Clinical and Experimental Immunology 10, 337–57.Google Scholar
Puentes, S. M., Sacks, D. L., Da Silva, P. & Joiner, K. A. (1988). Complement binding by two developmental stages of Leishmania major promastigotes varying in expression of a surface lipophosphoglycan. Journal of Experimental Medicine 167, 887–902.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Russell, D. G. & Alexander, J. (1988). Effective immunization against cutaneous leishmaniasis with defined membrane antigens reconstituted into liposomes. Journal of Immunology 140, 1274–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sacks, D. L., Lal, S. L., Shrivastava, S. N., Blackwell, J. & Neva, F. A. (1987). An analysis of T-cell responsiveness in Indian kala-azar. Journal of Immunology 138, 908–13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sacks, D. L. & Perkins, P. v. (1984). Identification of an infective stage of Leishmania promastigotes. Science 223, 1417.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sacks, D. L., Scott, P. A., Asofsky, R. & Sher, F. A. (1984). Cutaneous leishmaniasis in anti-IgM-treated mice: enhanced resistance due to functional depletion of a B-cell-dependent T cell involved in the suppressor pathway. Journal of Immunology 132, 2072–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schnur, L. F., Zuckerman, A. & Greenblatt, C. L. (1972). Leishmanial serotypes as distinguished by the gel diffusion of factors excreted in vitro and in vivo. Israel Journal of Medical Sciences 8, 932–42.Google ScholarPubMed
Scott, P., Natovitz, P., Coffman, R. L., Pearce, E. & Sher, A. (1988). Immunoregulation of cutaneous leishmaniasis: T-cell lines which transfer protective immunity or exacerbation belong to different TH subsets and respond to distinct parasite antigens. Journal of Experimental Medicine 168, 1675–84.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Scott, P., Pearce, E., Natovitz, P. & Sher, A. (1987). Vaccination against cutaneous leishmaniasis in a murine model. II. Immunologic properties of protective and nonprotective subfractions of a soluble promastigote extract. Journal of Immunology 139, 3118–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Senaldi, G., Cadeo, G., Carnevale, G., Di Perri, G. & Carosi, G. (1986). Visceral leishmaniasis as an opportunistic infection. The Lancet i 1094.Google Scholar
Solbach, W., Greil, J. & Rollinghoff, M. (1987). Anti-infectious responses in Leishmania major-infected BALB/c mice injected with recombinant granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor. Annales de l'Institut Pasteur/Immunologie 138, 759–62.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Titus, R. G., Lima, G. C., Engers, H. D. & Louis, J. A. (1984). Exacerbation of murine cutaneous leishmaniasis by adoptive transfer of parasite-specific helper T-cell populations capable of mediating L. major specific delayed type hypersensitivity. Journal of Immunology 133, 1594–1600.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Titus, R. G., Milon, G., Marchal, G., Vassalli, P., Cerottini, J. C. & Louis, J. A. (1987). Involvement of specific Lyt-2 + T cells in the immunological control of experimentally induced murine cutaneous leishmaniasis. European Journal of Immunology 17, 1429–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Titus, R. G. & Ribeiro, J. (1988). Salivary gland lysates from the sand fly Lutzomyia longipalis enhance Leishmania infectivity. Science 239, 1306–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Turco, S. J., Hull, S. R., Orlandi, P. A. Jr, Shepherd, S. D., Homans, S. W., Dwek, R. A. & Rademacher, T. W. (1987). Structure of the major carbohydrate fragment of the Leishmania donovani lipophosphoglycan. Biochemistry 26, 6233–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Verdejo, J., Alvar, J., Polo, R. M. & Lahoz, G. J. M. (1987). Leishmaniasis visceral asociada a anti-HTLV III positivo. Revista Clinica Española 180, 221.Google Scholar
Walton, B. C., Harper, J. III & Neal, R. A. (1983). Effectiveness of allopurinol against Leishmania braziliensis panamensis in Aotus trivirgatus. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 32, 46–50.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wirth, D. & McMahon-Pratt, D. (1982). Rapid identification of Leishmania species by specific hybridization of kinetoplast DNA in cutaneous lesions. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 79, 6999–7003.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wozencraft, A. O. & Blackwell, J. M. (1987). Increased infectivity of stationary-phase promastigotes of Leishmania donovani: correlation with enhanced C3 binding capacity and CR3-mediated attachment to host macrophages. Immunology 60, 559–63.Google ScholarPubMed
Wyler, D. J., Weinbaum, F. I. & Herrod, H. R. (1979). Characterization of in vitro proliferative responses of human lymphocytes to leishmanial antigens. Journal of Infectious Diseases 140, 215–21.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed