Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gxg78 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-25T02:06:36.915Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Congenital and oral transmission of American trypanosomiasis: an overview of physiopathogenic aspects

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  25 September 2012

LAURA VIVIANA SÁNCHEZ  and
JUAN DAVID RAMÍREZ
LAURA VIVIANA SÁNCHEZ
Affiliation:
Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Militar Nueva Granada, Bogotá–Colombia
JUAN DAVID RAMÍREZ*
Affiliation:
Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Militar Nueva Granada, Bogotá–Colombia Centro de Investigaciones en Microbiología y Parasitología Tropical (CIMPAT), Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá–Colombia
*
*Corresponding author: Centro de Investigaciones en Microbiología y Parasitología Tropical (CIMPAT), Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá, Colombia. Tel: +571 3324540. E-mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Summary

Chagas disease or American trypanosomiasis is a pathology affecting about 8–11 million people in Mexico, Central America, and South America, more than 300 000 persons in the United States as well as an indeterminate number of people in other non-endemic countries such as USA, Spain, Canada and Switzerland. The aetiological agent is Trypanosoma cruzi, a protozoan transmitted by multiple routes; among them, congenital route emerges as one of the most important mechanisms of spreading Chagas disease worldwide even in non-endemic countries and the oral route as the responsible of multiple outbreaks of acute Chagas disease in regions where the vectorial route has been interrupted. The aim of this review is to illustrate the recent research and advances in host-pathogen interaction making a model of how the virulence factors of the parasite would interact with the physiology and immune system components of the placental barrier and gastrointestinal tract in order to establish a response against T. cruzi infection. This review also presents the epidemiological, clinical and diagnostic features of congenital and oral Chagas disease in order to update the reader about the emerging scenarios of Chagas disease transmission.

Keywords

immune responseTrypanosoma cruzioral Chagas diseasecongenital Chagas disease
Type
Review Article
Information
Parasitology , Volume 140 , Issue 2 , February 2013 , pp. 147 - 159
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2012

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Abrahams, V. M. and Mor, G. (2005). Toll-like receptors and their role in the trophoblast. Placenta 26, 540–547. doi: 10.1016/j.placenta.2004.08.010.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Acosta-Serrano, A., Almeida, I. C., Freitas-Junior, L. H., Yoshida, N. and Schenkman, S. (2001). The mucin-like glycoprotein super-family of Trypanosoma cruzi: structure and biological roles. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology 114, 143–150. doi: S0166685101002456.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Andrade, S. G., Campos, R. F., Steindel, M., Guerreiro, M. L., Magalhães, J. B., de Almeida, M. C., Reis, J. N., Santos, V. C., Valadares, H. M., dos Reis, M. G. and Macedo, A. M. (2011). Biological, biochemical and molecular features of Typanosoma cruzi strains isolated from patients infected through oral transmission during a 2005 outbreak in the state of Santa Catarina, Brazil: its correspondence with the new T. cruzi Taxonomy Consensus (2009). Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, 106, 948–956.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Atias, A., Morales, M., Munoz, P. and Barria, M. (1985). Ocular involvement in congenital Chagas’ disease. Revista chilena de pediatría 56, 137–141.Google ScholarPubMed
Azogue, E., La Fuente, C. and Darras, C. (1985). Congenital Chagas’ disease in Bolivia: epidemiological aspects and pathological findings. Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 79, 176–180.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Basile, L., Oliveira, I., Ciruela, P. and Plasencia, A. (2011). The current screening programme for congenital transmission of Chagas disease in Catalonia, Spain. Eurosurveillance 16, 1–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bhaijee, F., Subramony, C., Tang, S. J. and Pepper, D. J. (2011). Human immunodeficiency virus-associated gastrointestinal disease: common endoscopic biopsy diagnoses. Pathology Research International 2011, 1–8. doi: 10.4061/2011/247923.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bisio, M., Seidenstein, M. E., Burgos, J. M., Ballering, G., Risso, M., Pontoriero, R., Moreau, M., Altcheh, J., Leguizamon, M. S., Freilij, H., Marceillac, M. and Schijman, A. G. (2011) Urbanization of congenital transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi: prospective polymerase chain reaction study in pregnancy. Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 105, 543–549. doi: 10.1016/j.trstmh.2011.07.003.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bittencourt, A. L. (1963). Chagasic placentitis and congenital transmission of Chagas’ disease. Revista do Instituto de Medicina Tropical de São Paulo 5, 62–67.Google ScholarPubMed
Burgos, J. M., Altcheh, J., Petrucelli, N., Bisio, M., Levin, M. J., Freilij, H. and Schijman, A. G. (2009). Molecular diagnosis and treatment monitoring of congenital transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi to twins of a triplet delivery. Diagnostic Microbiology and Infectious Disease 65, 58–61. doi: 10.1016/j.diagmicrobio.2009.04.010.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burgos, J. M., Begher, S. B., Freitas, J. M., Bisio, M., Duffy, T., Altcheh, J., Teijeiro, R., Lopez Alcoba, H., Deccarlini, F., Freilij, H., Levin, M. J., Levalle, J., Macedo, A. M. and Schijman, A. G. (2005). Molecular diagnosis and typing of Trypanosoma cruzi populations and lineages in cerebral Chagas disease in a patient with AIDS. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 73, 1016–1018.doi: 73/6/1016.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buschiazzo, A., Amaya, M. F., Cremona, M. L., Frasch, A. C. and Alzari, P. M. (2002). The crystal structure and mode of action of trans-sialidase, a key enzyme in Trypanosoma cruzi pathogenesis. Molecular Cell 10, 757–768. doi: S1097276502006809.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Campbell, D. A., Westenberger, S. J. and Sturm, N. R. (2004). The determinants of Chagas disease: connecting parasite and host genetics. Current Molecular Medicine 4, 549–562.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carlier, Y. (2005). Factors and mechanisms involved in the transmission and development of congenital infection with Trypanosoma cruzi. Revista da Sociedade Brasileira de Medicina Tropical 38 (Suppl.) S105–S107.Google ScholarPubMed
Carlier, Y. and Torrico, F. (2003). Congenital infection with Trypanosoma cruzi: from mechanisms of transmission to strategies for diagnosis and control. Revista da Sociedade Brasileira de Medicina Tropical 36, 767–771.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carlier, Y., Torrico, F., Sosa-Estani, S., Russomando, G., Luquetti, A., Freilij, H. and Albajar Vinas, P. (2011 a). Congenital Chagas disease: recommendations for diagnosis, treatment and control of newborns, siblings and pregnant women. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 5, e1250. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0001250.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carlier, Y., Truyens, C., Deloron, P. and Peyron, F. (2011 b). Congenital parasitic infections: a review. Acta Tropica 121, 55–70. doi: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2011.10.018.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clark, D. A., Ding, J. W., Yu, G., Levy, G. A. and Gorczynski, R. M. (2001). Fgl2 prothrombinase expression in mouse trophoblast and decidua triggers abortion but may be countered by OX-2. Molecular Human Reproduction 7, 185–194.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Corrales, R. M., Mora, M. C., Negrette, O. S., Diosque, P., Lacunza, D., Virreira, M., Breniere, S. F. and Basombrio, M. A. (2009). Congenital Chagas disease involves Trypanosoma cruzi sub-lineage IId in the northwestern province of Salta, Argentina. Infection, Genetics and Evolution 9, 278–282. doi: 10.1016/j.meegid.2008.12.008.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cortez, M., Silva, M. R., Neira, I., Ferreira, D., Sasso, G. R., Luquetti, A. O., Rassi, A. and Yoshida, N. (2006). Trypanosoma cruzi surface molecule gp90 downregulates invasion of gastric mucosal epithelium in orally infected mice. Microbes and Infection 8, 36–44. doi: 10.1016/j.micinf.2005.05.016.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Corti, M., Metta, H., Palmieri, O. and Schtirbu, R. (2007). Acute phlegmonous gastritis in a patient with AIDS. Enfermedades Infecciosas y Microbiología Clínica 25, 218–220. doi: 13099379.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coura, J. R. (2007). Chagas disease: what is known and what is needed-a background article. Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz 102 (Suppl.) S113–S122. doi: S0074-02762007000900018.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Coura, J. R. and Dias, J. C. (2009). Epidemiology, control and surveillance of Chagas disease: 100 years after its discovery. Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz 104 (Suppl.) S31–S40. doi: S0074-02762009000900006.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Coura, J. R., Junqueira, A. C., Fernandes, O., Valente, S. A. and Miles, M. A. (2002). Emerging Chagas disease in Amazonian Brazil. Trends in Parasitology 18, 171–176. doi: S1471492201022000.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dias, J. C. (2006). Notes about of Trypanosoma cruzi and yours bio-ecology characteristics with agents of the transmission by meals. Revista da Sociedade Brasileira de Medicina Tropical 39, 370–375. doi: S0037-86822006000400010.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Docampo, R. and Pignataro, O. P. (1991) The inositol phosphate/diacylglycerol signalling pathway in Trypanosoma cruzi. The Biochemical Journal 275, 407–411.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Duffy, T., Bisio, M., Altcheh, J., Burgos, J. M., Diez, M., Levin, M. J., Favaloro, R. R., Freilij, H. and Schijman, A. G. (2009). Accurate real-time PCR strategy for monitoring bloodstream parasitic loads in chagas disease patients. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 3, e419. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0000419.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Elmore, S. A., Jones, J. L., Conrad, P. A., Patton, S., Lindsay, D. S. and Dubey, J. P. (2010). Toxoplasma gondii: epidemiology, feline clinical aspects, and prevention. Trends in Parasitology 26, 190–196. doi: 10.1016/j.pt.2010.01.009.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Esteve, C., Resano, A., Diaz-Tejeiro, P. and Fernandez-Benitez, M. (2000). Eosinophilic gastritis due to Anisakis: a case report. Allergologia et Immunopathologia 28, 21–23.Google ScholarPubMed
Falla, A., Herrera, C., Fajardo, A., Montilla, M., Vallejo, G. A. and Guhl, F. (2009). Haplotype identification within Trypanosoma cruzi I in Colombian isolates from several reservoirs, vectors and humans. Acta Tropica 110, 15–21. doi: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2008.12.003.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ferreira, C. S., Martinho, P. C., Amato Neto, V. and Cruz, R. R. (2001). Pasteurization of human milk to prevent transmission of Chagas disease. Revista do Instituto de Medicina Tropical de São Paulo 43, 161–162. doi: S0036-46652001000300008.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frasch, A. C. (2000). Functional diversity in the trans-sialidase and mucin families in Trypanosoma cruzi. Parasitology Today 16, 282–286. doi: S0169-4758(00)01698-7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fumarola, L., Monno, R., Ierardi, E., Rizzo, G., Giannelli, G., Lalle, M. and Pozio, E. (2009). Anisakis pegreffi etiological agent of gastric infections in two Italian women. Foodborne Pathogens and Disease 6, 1157–1159. doi: 10.1089/fpd.2009.0325.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ganga-Zandzou, P. S., Nguema, E. K., Mbo, M. M. and Ondimba el, B. (2005). Congenital malaria falciparum. Archives de Pédiatrie 12, 1164–1166. doi: 10.1016/j.arcped.2005.04.070.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gascon, J., Bern, C. and Pinazo, M. J. (2009). Chagas disease in Spain, the United States and other non-endemic countries. Acta Tropica 115, 22–27. doi:10.1016/j.actatropica.2009.07.019.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Greenough, A. (1994). The TORCH screen and intrauterine infections. Archives of Disease In Childhood Fetal and Neonatal Edition 70, 163–165.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Guhl, F. and Ramirez, J. D. (2011). Trypanosoma cruzi I diversity: towards the need of genetic subdivision?. Acta Tropica 119, 1–4. doi: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2011.04.002.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Guhl, F. and Vallejo, G. A. (1999). Interruption of Chagas disease transmission in the Andean countries: Colombia. Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz 94 (Suppl.) S413–S415. doi: S0074-0276(99)09400081.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hasegawa, Y., Goto, A., Nishimura, S., Sukawa, Y., Fujii, K., Suzuki, K., Yonezawa, K., Abe, T., Shinomura, Y. and Yoshida, Y. (2009). Cytomegalovirus gastritis after treatment with rituximab. Endoscopy 41 (Suppl.) 199. doi: 10.1055/s-0029-1214855.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heikkinen, J., Mottonen, M., Komi, J., Alanen, A. and Lassila, O. (2003). Phenotypic characterization of human decidual macrophages. Clinical Experimental Immunology 131, 498–505.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hermann, E., Truyens, C., Alonso-Vega, C., Rodriguez, P., Berthe, A., Torrico, F. and Carlier, Y. (2004). Congenital transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi is associated with maternal enhanced parasitaemia and decreased production of interferon- gamma in response to parasite antigens. Journal of Infectious Diseases 189, 1274–1281. doi: 10.1086/382511.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hindupur, S. and Despotovic, V. (2006). Gastric histoplasmosis. The Lancet Infectious Diseases 6, 60. doi: 10.1016/S1473-3099(05)70328-5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hoft, D. F., Farrar, P. L., Kratz-Owens, K. and Shaffer, D. (1996). Gastric invasion by Trypanosoma cruzi and induction of protective mucosal immune responses. Infection and Immunity 64, 3800–3810.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hokama, A., Taira, K., Yamamoto, Y., Kinjo, N., Kinjo, F., Takahashi, K. and Fujita, J. (2010). Cytomegalovirus gastritis. World Journal of Gastrointestinal Endoscopy 2, 379–380. doi: 10.4253/wjge.v2.i11.379.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ikeda, K., Kumashiro, R. and Kifune, T. (1989). Nine cases of acute gastric anisakiasis. Gastrointesinal Endoscopy 35, 304–308.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jacobs, T., Erdmann, H. and Fleischer, B. (2009). Molecular interaction of Siglecs (sialic acid-binding Ig-like lectins) with sialylated ligands on Trypanosoma cruzi. European Journal of Cell Biology 89, 113–116. doi: 10.1016/j.ejcb.2009.10.006.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jofre, M. L., Neira, O. P., Noemi, H. I. and Cerva, C. J. (2008). Pseudoterranovosis and sushi. Revista chilena de infectología 25, 200–205. doi: S0716-10182008000300010.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, J. L., Krueger, A., Schulkin, J. and Schantz, P. M. (2009). Toxoplasmosis prevention and testing in pregnancy, survey of obstetrician-gynaecologists. Zoonoses and Public Health 57, 27–33. doi: 10.1111/j.1863-2378.2009.01277.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kakugawa, Y., Kami, M., Matsuda, T., Saito, Y., Kim, S. W., Fukuda, T., Mori, S., Shimoda, T., Tanosaki, R. and Saito, D. (2010). Endoscopic diagnosis of cytomegalovirus gastritis after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. World Journal of Gastroenterology 16, 2907–2912.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kashyap, S. (2010). Congenital malaria: a case report. Journal of the Indian Medical Association 108, 51.Google ScholarPubMed
Kayama, H., Koga, R., Atarashi, K., Okuyama, M., Kimura, T., Mak, T. W., Uematsu, S., Akira, S., Takayanagi, H., Honda, K., Yamamoto, M. and Takeda, K. (2009). NFATc1 mediates Toll-like receptor-independent innate immune responses during Trypanosoma cruzi infection. PLoS Pathogens 5, e1000514. doi: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1000514.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kayama, H. and Takeda, K. (2010). The innate immune response to Trypanosoma cruzi infection. Microbes and Infection 12, 511–517. doi: 10.1016/j.micinf.2010.03.005.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kodjikian, L. (2010). Toxoplasmosis and pregnancy. Journal Français D'Ophtalmologie 33, 362–367. doi: 10.1016/j.jfo.2010.03.002.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kravetz, J. (2010). Congenital toxoplasmosis. Clinical Evidence 2010, 0906.Google ScholarPubMed
Lagerberg, R. E. (2008). Malaria in pregnancy: a literature review. Journal of Midwifery & Women's Health 53, 209–215. doi: 10.1016/j.jmwh.2008.02.012.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Luquetti, A. O., Dias, J. C. and Prata, A. (2005). Diagnosis and treatment of congenital infection caused by Trypanosoma cruzi in Brazil. Revista da Sociedade Brasileira do Medicina Tropical 38, 27–28.Google ScholarPubMed
Macedo, A. M., Machado, C. R., Oliveira, R. P. and Pena, S. D. (2004). Trypanosoma cruzi: genetic structure of populations and relevance of genetic variability to the pathogenesis of chagas disease. Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz 99, 1–12. doi: S0074-02762004000100001.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Macian, F. (2005). NFAT proteins: key regulators of T-cell development and function. Nature Reviews Immunology 5, 472–484. doi: 10.1038/nri1632.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maeng, L., Lee, A., Choi, K., Kang, C. S. and Kim, K. M. (2004). Granulomatous gastritis: a clinicopathologic analysis of 18 biopsy cases. American Journal of Surgical Pathology 28, 941–945. doi: 00000478-200407000-00015.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mallimaci, M. C., Sosa-Estani, S., Russomando, G., Sanchez, Z., Sijvarger, C., Alvarez, I. M., Barrionuevo, L., Lopez, C. and Segura, E. L. (2010). Early diagnosis of congenital Trypanosoma cruzi infection, using shed acute phase antigen, in Ushuaia, Tierra del Fuego, Argentina. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 82, 55–59. doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.2010.09-0219.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marcili, A., Valente, V. C., Valente, S. A., Junqueira, A. C., da Silva, F. M., Pinto, A. Y., Naiff, R. D., Campaner, M., Coura, J. R., Camargo, E. P., Miles, M. A. and Teixeira, M. M. (2009). Trypanosoma cruzi in Brazilian Amazonia: Lineages TCI and TCIIa in wild primates, Rhodnius spp. and in humans with Chagas disease associated with oral transmission. International Journal for Parasitology 39, 615–623. doi: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2008.09.015.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McGhee, J. R., Mestecky, J., Dertzbaugh, M. T., Eldridge, J. H., Hirasawa, M. and Kiyono, H. (1992). The mucosal immune system: from fundamental concepts to vaccine development. Vaccine 10, 75–88.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meine, G. C., Dietz, J., Rocha, M., Mattos, T., de Souza, A. R. and Conteletti, F. R. (2004). Atypical gastric presentation of strongyloidiasis in HIV-infected patient–case report. Digestive and Liver Disease 36, 760–762.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moncayo, A. and Silveira, A. C. (2009). Current epidemiological trends for Chagas disease in Latin America and future challenges in epidemiology, surveillance and health policy. Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz 104 (Suppl.) 17–30. doi: S0074-02762009000900005.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mor, G. and Cardenas, I. (2010). The immune system in pregnancy: a unique complexity. American Journal of Reproductive Immunology 63, 425–433. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0897.2010.00836.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moya, P. R., Villagra, L. and Risco, J. (1979). Congenital Chagas disease: anatomopathological findings in the placenta and umbilical cord. Revista de la Facultad de Ciencias Médicas de Córdoba 37, 21–27.Google ScholarPubMed
Mues, B., Langer, D., Zwadlo, G. and Song, C. (1989). Phenotypic characterization of macrophages in human term placenta. Immunology 67, 303–307.Google ScholarPubMed
Munn, D. H., Zhou, M., Attwood, J. T., Bondarev, I., Conway, S. J., Marshall, B., Brown, C. and Mellor, A. L. (1998). Prevention of allogeneic fetal rejection by tryptophan catabolism. Science 281, 1191–1193.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nevin, N. C., Eakins, D., Clarke, S. D. and Carson, D. J. (1969). Acute phlegmonous gastritis. British Journal of Surgery 56, 268–270.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nicholls, R. (2006). Enfermedad de Chagas como enfermedad transmitida por alimentos: La experiencia en Colombia. Grupo de Parasitología Instituto Nacional de Salud, Colombia. In Informe Final Consulta Técnica e Epidemiología, Prevención y Manejo de la Transmisión de la Enfermedad de Chagas como Enfermedad Transmitida por Alimentos (ETA) 1, 13–14.Google Scholar
Oliveira, A. C., de Alencar, B. C., Tzelepis, F., Klezewsky, W., da Silva, R. N., Neves, F. S., Cavalcanti, G. S., Boscardin, S., Nunes, M. P., Santiago, M. F., Nobrega, A., Rodrigues, M. M. and Bellio, M. (2010). Impaired innate immunity in Tlr4(−/−) mice but preserved CD8+ T cell responses against Trypanosoma cruzi in Tlr4-, Tlr2-, Tlr9- or Myd88-deficient mice. PLoS Pathogens 6, e1000870. doi: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1000870.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Oliveira, I., Torrico, F., Muñoz, J. and Gascon, J. (2010). Congenital transmission of Chagas disease: a clinical approach. Expert Review of Anti-Infective Therapy 8, 945–956.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ozturk, G., Aydinli, B., Celebi, F. and Gursan, N. (2011). Gastric perforation caused by Strongyloides stercoralis: a case report. (2011). Ulus Travma Acil Cerrahi Derg 17, 90–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
PAHO (2006). Quantitative Estimates of Chagas Disease in the Americas. OPS/HDM/CD/425-06.Google Scholar
Palm, N. W. and Medzhitov, R. (2009). Pattern recognition receptors and control of adaptive immunity. Immunological Reviews 227, 221–233. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-065X.2008.00731.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pereira, K. S., Schmidt, F. L., Barbosa, R. L., Guaraldo, A. M., Franco, R. M., Dias, V. L. and Passos, L. A. (2010). Transmission of chagas disease (american trypanosomiasis) by food. Advances in Food & Nutrition Research 59, 63–85. doi: 10.1016/S1043-4526(10)59003-X.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pereira, K. S., Schmidt, F. L., Guaraldo, A. M., Franco, R. M., Dias, V. L. and Passos, L. A. (2009). Chagas’ disease as a foodborne illness. Journal of Food Protection 72, 441–446.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Piron, M., Verges, M., Munoz, J., Casamitjana, N., Sanz, S., Maymo, R. M., Hernandez, J. M., Puig, L., Portus, M., Gascon, J. and Sauleda, S. (2008). Seroprevalence of Trypanosoma cruzi infection in at-risk blood donors in Catalonia (Spain). Transfusion 48, 1862–1868. doi:10.1111/j.1537-2995.2008.01789.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ponce, C., Ponce, E., Vinelli, E., Montoya, A., de Aguilar, V., Gonzalez, A., Zingales, B., Rangel-Aldao, R., Levin, M. J., Esfandiari, J., Umezawa, E. S., Luquetti, A. O. and da Silveira, J. F. (2005). Validation of a rapid and reliable test for diagnosis of Chagas ‘disease by detection of Trypanosoma cruzi-specific antibodies in blood of donors and patients in Central America. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 43, 5065–5068. doi: 10.1128/JCM.43.10.5065-5068.2005.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Priotto, S., Sartori, M. J., Repossi, G. and Valentich, M. A. (2009). Trypanosoma cruzi: participation of cholesterol and placental alkaline phosphatase in the host cell invasion. Experimental Parasitology 122, 70–73. doi: 10.1016/j.exppara.2009.01.004.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Punukollu, G., Gowda, R. M., Khan, I. A., Navarro, V. S. and Vasavada, B. C. (2007). Clinical aspects of the Chagas’ heart disease. International Journal of Cardiology 115, 279–283. doi:10.1016/j.ijcard.2006.03.004.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Raghupathy, R. (1997). Th1-type immunity is incompatible with successful pregnancy. Immunology Today 18, 478–482. doi: S0167569997011274.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Raghupathy, R., Al-Mutawa, E., Al-Azemi, M., Makhseed, M., Azizieh, F. and Szekeres-Bartho, J. (2009). Progesterone-induced blocking factor (PIBF) modulates cytokine production by lymphocytes from women with recurrent miscarriage or preterm delivery. Journal of Reproductive Immunology 80, 91–99. doi: 10.1016/j.jri.2009.01.004.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Raimundo, S. M., Massad, E. and Yang, H. M. (2009). Modelling congenital transmission of Chagas’ disease. Biosystems 99, 215–222. doi: 10.1016/j.biosystems.2009.11.005.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ramírez, J. D., Duque, M. C. and Guhl, F. (2011). Phylogenetic reconstruction based on Cytochrome b (Cytb) gene sequences reveals distinct genotypes within Colombian Trypanosoma cruzi I populations. Acta Tropica 119, 61–65. doi: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2011.04.009.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ramírez, J. D., Guhl, F., Rendon, L. M., Rosas, F., Marin-Neto, J. A. and Morillo, C. A. (2010). Chagas cardiomyopathy manifestations and Trypanosoma cruzi genotypes circulating in chronic Chagasic patients. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 4, e899. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0000899.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ramírez, J. D., Guhl, F., Umezawa, E. S., Morillo, C. A., Rosas, F., Marin-Neto, J. A. and Restrepo, S. (2009). Evaluation of adult chronic Chagas’ heart disease diagnosis by molecular and serological methods. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 47, 3945–3951. doi:10.1128/JCM.01601-09.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ramírez, J. D., Guhl, F., Messenger, L. A., Lewis, M. D., Montilla, M., Cucunubá, Z., Miles, M. A. and Llewellyn, M. S. (2012). Contemporary cryptic sexuality in Trypanosoma cruzi. Molecular Ecology (in the Press).CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rassi, A. Jr., Rassi, A. and Marin-Neto, J. A. (2010). Chagas disease. The Lancet 375, 1388–1402. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60061-X.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Redline, R. W. (2006). Inflammatory responses in the placenta and umbilical cord. Seminars in Fetal and Neonatal Medicine 11, 296–301. doi: 10.1016/j.siny.2006.02.011.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reyes, M. B., Lorca, M., Munoz, P. and Frasch, A. C. (1990). Fetal IgG specificities against Trypanosoma cruzi antigens in infected newborns. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 87, 2846–2850.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roddy, P., Goiri, J., Flevaud, L., Palma, P. P., Morote, S., Lima, N., Villa, L., Torrico, F. and Albajar-Vinas, P. (2008). Field evaluation of a rapid immunochromatographic assay for detection of Trypanosoma cruzi infection by use of whole blood. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 46, 2022–2027. doi: 10.1128/JCM.02303-07.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Romero, R., Gotsch, F., Pineles, B. and Kusanovic, J. P. (2007). Inflammation in pregnancy: its roles in reproductive physiology, obstetrical complications, and fetal injury. Nutrition Reviews 65, 194–202.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ross, D. A. and Vincenti, A. C. (1994). Acute phlegmonous gastritis: a rare condition with a potentially common cause. British Journal of Hospital Medicine 52, 115–116.Google ScholarPubMed
Sankar, J., Menon, R. and Kottarathara, A. J. (2010). Congenital malaria–a case report from a non-endemic area. Tropical Biomedicine 27, 326–329.Google ScholarPubMed
Sartori, M. J., Lin, S., Frank, F. M., Malchiodi, E. L. and de Fabro, S. P. (2002). Role of placental alkaline phosphatase in the interaction between human placental trophoblast and Trypanosoma cruzi. Experimental and Molecular Pathology 72, 84–90. doi: 10.1006/exmp.2001.2412.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Savino, W., Villa-Verde, D. M., Mendes-da-Cruz, D. A., Silva-Monteiro, E., Perez, A. R., Aoki Mdel, P., Bottasso, O., Guinazu, N., Silva-Barbosa, S. D. and Gea, S. (2007). Cytokines and cell adhesion receptors in the regulation of immunity to Trypanosoma cruzi. Cytokine & Growth Factor Reviews 18, 107–124. doi: 10.1016/j.cytogfr.2007.01.010.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schijman, A. (2006). Congenital Chagas disease. Perspectives in Medical Virology 13, 223–258. doi: 10.1016/S0168-7069(06)13012.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schijman, A., Bisio, M., Orellana, L., Sued, M., Duffy, T., Mejía-Jaramillo, A., Cura, C., Auter, F., Veron, V., Qvarnstrong, Y., Deborggraeve, S., Hijar, G., Zulantay, I., Lucero, R., Velazquez, El., Tellez, T., Sanchez-Leon, Z., Galvao, L., Nolder, D., Monje-Rumi, M., Levi, J., Ramírez, J. D., Zorrilla, P., Flores, M., Jercic, M., Grisante, G., Añez, N., De Castro, A., Gonzalez, C. I., Acosta, K., Yachelini, P., Torrico, F., Robello, C., Diosque, P., Triana, O., Aznar, C., Russomando, G., Buscher, P., Assal, A., Guhl, F., Sosa-Estani, S., Da Silva, A., Britto, C., Luquetti, A. and Ladzins, J. (2011). International study to evaluate PCR methods for detection of Trypanosoma cruzi DNA in blood samples from Chagas disease patients. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 5, e931. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0000931.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schmausser, B., Andrulis, M., Endrich, S., Lee, S. K., Josenhans, C., Muller-Hermelink, H. K. and Eck, M. (2004). Expression and subcellular distribution of toll-like receptors TLR4, TLR5 and TLR9 on the gastric epithelium in Helicobacter pylori infection. Clinical & Experimental Immunology 136, 521–526. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2249.2004.02464.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schmunis, G. A. and Yadon, Z. E. (2009). Chagas disease: a Latin American health problem becoming a world health problem. Acta Tropica 115, 14–21. doi: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2009.11.003.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shakhawat, A., Shaikly, V., Elzatma, E., Mavrakos, E., Jabeen, A. and Fernandez, N. (2010). Interaction between HLA-G and monocyte/macrophages in human pregnancy. Journal of Reproductive Immunology 85, 40–46. doi: 10.1016/j.jri.2010.02.004.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shet, A. (2011). Congenital and perinatal infections: throwing new light with an old TORCH. The Indian Journal of Pediatrics 78, 88–95. doi: 10.1007/s12098-010-0254-3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shikanai-Yasuda, M. A. (2006). Transmissão da doença de Chagas aguda por vía oral: surto epidèmico em Catolé do Rocha. Paraíba, 1986. Hospital das Clínicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de Sao Paulo (FMUSP), Depto. Moléstias Infecciosas e Parasitárias da FMUSP. In Informe Final Consulta Técnica e Epidemiología, Prevención y Manejo de la Transmisión de la Enfermedad de Chagas como Enfermedad Transmitida por Alimentos (ETA) 1, 35–38.Google Scholar
Shikanai-Yasuda, M. A., Marcondes, C. B., Guedes, L. A., Siqueira, G. S., Barone, A. A., Dias, J. C., Amato Neto, V., Tolezano, J. E., Peres, B. A., Arruda, E. R. Junior, Lopes, M. H., Shiroma, M. and Chapadeiro, E. (1991). Possible oral transmission of acute Chagas' disease in Brazil. Revista do Instituto de Medicina Tropical de São Paulo 33, 351–357.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sicuri, E., Munoz, J., Pinazo, M. J., Posada, E., Sanchez, J., Alonso, P. L. and Gascon, J. (2011). Economic evaluation of Chagas disease screening of pregnant Latin American women and of their infants in a non endemic area. Acta Tropica 118, 110–117. doi: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2011.02.012.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Silveira, A. (2006). Factores de riesgo implicados en la transmisión oral de la Enfermedad de Chagas. In Informe Final Consulta Técnica e Epidemiología, Prevención y Manejo de la Transmisión de la Enfermedad de Chagas como Enfermedad Transmitida por Alimentos (ETA) 1, 16–19.Google Scholar
Silveira, A. and Vinhaes, M. (1999). Elimination of vector-borne transmission of Chagas disease. Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz 94 (Suppl.) S405–S411. doi: S0074-0276(99)09400080.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sosa-Estani, S., Gamboa-Leon, M. R., Del Cid-Lemus, J., Althabe, F., Alger, J., Almendares, O., Cafferata, M. L., Chippaux, J. P., Dumonteil, E., Gibbons, L., Padilla-Raygoza, N., Schneider, D., Belizan, J. M. and Buekens, P. (2008). Use of a rapid test on umbilical cord blood to screen for Trypanosoma cruzi infection in pregnant women in Argentina, Bolivia, Honduras, and Mexico. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 79, 755–759. doi: 79/5/755.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Soto Tarazona, A. R., Meza Flores, J. L., Garrido Rivadeneyra, D. and Cok Garcia, J. (2003). Gastric histoplasmosis simulating a malignant gastric ulcer. Revista de Gastroenterología del Perú 23, 221–224.Google ScholarPubMed
Staquicini, D. I., Martins, R. M., Macedo, S., Sasso, G. R., Atayde, V. D., Juliano, M. A. and Yoshida, N. (2010). Role of GP82 in the selective binding to gastric mucin during oral infection with Trypanosoma cruzi. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 4, e613. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0000613.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Steindel, M., Kramer Pacheco, L., Scholl, D., Soares, M., de Moraes, M. H., Eger, I., Kosmann, C., Sincero, T. C., Stoco, P. H., Murta, S. M., de Carvalho-Pinto, C. J. and Grisard, E. C. (2008). Characterization of Trypanosoma cruzi isolated from humans, vectors, and animal reservoirs following an outbreak of acute human Chagas disease in Santa Catarina State, Brazil. Diagnostic Microbiology and Infectious Disease 60, 25–32. doi: 10.1016/j.diagmicrobio.2007.07.016.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Storino, R. and Jorg, M. E. (1994). Vías de infección y aspectos clínicos. (ed. Storino, R. and Milei, J.), pp. 132–141. Enfermedad de Chagas, Buenos Aires, Doyma Argentina.Google Scholar
Storino, R., Auger, S., Caravello, O., Urrutia, M., Sanmartino, M. and Jörg, M. (2002). Cardiopatía chagásica en pacientes de área endémica versus contagiados en forma ocasional. Revista de Saúde Pública 36, 755–758. doi: 10.1590/S0034-89102002000700016.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Svensson, L., Arvola, M., Sallstrom, M. A., Holmdahl, R. and Mattsson, R. (2001). The Th2 cytokines IL-4 and IL-10 are not crucial for the completion of allogeneic pregnancy in mice. Journal of Reproductive Immunology 51, 3–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tarleton, R. L. (2007). Immune system recognition of Trypanosoma cruzi. Current Opinion in Immunology 19, 430–434. doi:10.1016/j.coi.2007.06.003.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Taylor, G. A., Feng., C. G. and Sher, A. (2004). P47 GTPases: regulators of immunity to intracellular pathogens. Nat Review of Immunology, 4, 100–109.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thellin, O. and Heinen, E. (2003). Pregnancy and the immune system: between tolerance and rejection. Toxicology 185, 179–184. doi: S0300483X02006078.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Torrico, F., Alonso-Vega, C., Suarez, E., Rodriguez, P., Torrico, M. C., Dramaix, M., Truyens, C. and Carlier, Y. (2004). Maternal Trypanosoma cruzi infection, pregnancy outcome, morbidity, and mortality of congenitally infected and non-infected newborns in Bolivia. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 70, 201–209. doi: 70/2/201.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Toso, M. A., Vial, U. F. and Galanti, N. (2011). Oral transmission of Chagas’ disease. Revista médica de Chile 139, 258–266. doi: S0034-98872011000200017/S0034-98872011000200017.Google Scholar
Tromba, J. L., Inglese, R., Rieders, B. and Todaro, R. (1991). Primary gastric tuberculosis presenting as pyloric outlet obstruction. American Journal of Gastroenterology 86, 1820–1822.Google ScholarPubMed
Tulassay, Z. and Herszenyi, L. (2010). Gastric mucosal defense and cytoprotection. Best Practice & Research Clinical Gastroenterology 24, 99–108. doi: 10.1016/j.bpg.2010.02.006.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Umezawa, E. S., Nascimento, M. S., Kesper, N. Jr., Coura, J. R., Borges-Pereira, J., Junqueira, A. C. and Camargo, M. E. (1996). Immunoblot assay using excreted-secreted antigens of Trypanosoma cruzi in serodiagnosis of congenital, acute, and chronic Chagas’ disease. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 34, 2143–2147.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Valente, S. A., Valente, V. C. and Pinto, A. (2006). Epidemiologia e tranmissão oral da doença de Chagas na Amazonia Brasileira. Instituto Evandro Chagas. Rodovia. In Informe Final Consulta Técnica y Epidemiología, Prevención y Manejo de la Transmisión de la Enfermedad de Chagas como Enfermedad Transmitida por Alimentos (ETA) 1, 21–26.Google Scholar
Vargas, S., Oporto, P. and Espinosa, E. (2011). Primer brote reportado de la enfermedad de chagas en la Amazonia Boliviana: reporte de 14 casos agudos por transmisión oral de Trypanosoma cruzi en Guayaramerín, Beni-Bolivia. Biofarbo 19, 52–58.Google Scholar
Villalta, F., Scharfstein, J., Ashton, A. W., Tyler, K. M., Guan, F., Mukherjee, S., Lima, M. F., Alvarez, S., Weiss, L. M., Huang, H., Machado, F. S. and Tanowitz, H. B. (2009). Perspectives on the Trypanosoma cruzi-host cell receptor interactions. Parasitology Research 104, 1251–1260. doi: 10.1007/s00436-009-1383-3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Virreira, M., Martinez, S., Alonso-Vega, C., Torrico, F., Solano, M., Torrico, M. C., Parrado, R., Truyens, C., Carlier, Y. and Svoboda, M. (2006). Amniotic fluid is not useful for diagnosis of congenital Trypanosoma cruzi infection. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 75, 1082–1084. doi: 75/6/1082.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Virreira, M., Truyens, C., Alonso-Vega, C., Brutus, L., Jijena, J., Torrico, F., Carlier, Y. and Svoboda, M. (2007). Comparison of Trypanosoma cruzi lineages and levels of parasitic DNA in infected mothers and their newborns. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 77, 102–106. doi: 77/1/102.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wang, A. Y. and Peura, D. A. (2011). The prevalence and incidence of Helicobacter pylori-associated peptic ulcer disease and upper gastrointestinal bleeding throughout the world. Gastrointestinal Endoscopy Clinics of North America 21, 613–635. doi: 10.1016/j.giec.2011.07.011.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
World Health Organization (2002). Control of Chagas Disease. WHO Technical Report Series No.905. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.Google Scholar
Yaldiz, M., Hakverdi, S., Aslan, A., Temiz, M. and Culha, G. (2009). Gastric infection by Strongyloides stercoralis: a case report. The Turkish Journal of Gastroenterology 20, 48–51.Google ScholarPubMed
Yoshida, N. (2006). Molecular basis of mammalian cell invasion by Trypanosoma cruzi. Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciências 78, 87–111. doi: S0001-37652006000100010/S0001-37652006000100010.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yoshida, N. (2008). Trypanosoma cruzi infection by oral route: how the interplay between parasite and host components modulates infectivity. Parasitology International 57, 105–109. doi: 10.1016/j.parint.2007.12.008.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yoshida, N. (2009). Molecular mechanisms of Trypanosoma cruzi infection by oral route. Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz 104 (Suppl.) 101–107. doi: S0074-02762009000900015.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yoshida, N. and Cortez, M. (2008). Trypanosoma cruzi: parasite and host cell signaling during the invasion process. Subcellular Biochemistry 47, 82–91.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yoshida, N., Favoreto, S., Ferreira, A. T. and Manque, P. M. (2000). Signal transduction induced in Trypanosoma cruzi metacyclic trypomastigotes during the invasion of mammalian cells. Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research 33, 269–278. doi: S0100-879X2000000300003.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yoshida, N., Tyler, K. M. and Llewellyn, M. S. (2011). Invasion mechanisms among emerging food-borne protozoan parasites. Trends in Parasitology 27, 459–466. doi: 10.1016/j.pt.2011.06.006.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zingales, B., Andrade, S. G., Briones, M. R., Campbell, D. A., Chiari, E., Fernandes, O., Guhl, F., Lages-Silva, E., Macedo, A. M., Machado, C. R., Miles, M. A., Romanha, A. J., Sturm, N. R., Tibayrenc, M. and Schijman, A. G. (2009). A new consensus for Trypanosoma cruzi intraspecific nomenclature: second revision meeting recommends TcI to TcVI. Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz 104, 1051–1054. doi: S0074-02762009000700021.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zingales, B., Miles, M., Campbell, D., Tibayrenc, M., Macedo, A., Teixeira, M., Schijman, A., Llewellyn, M., Lages-Silva, E., Machado, C., Andrade, S. and Sturm, N. R. (2012). The revised Trypanosoma cruzi subspecific nomenclature: Rationale, epidemiological relevance and research applications. Infection, Genetics and Evolution 12, 240–253.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed