Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-jn8rn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-31T16:50:40.593Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Babesiosis of cattle

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  19 April 2005

R. BOCK ,
L. JACKSON ,
A. DE VOS  and
W. JORGENSEN
R. BOCK
Affiliation:
Tick Fever Centre, Animal and Plant Health Service, Queensland Department of Primary Industries & Fisheries, 280 Grindle Road, Wacol Qld 4076, Australia
L. JACKSON
Affiliation:
Tick Fever Centre, Animal and Plant Health Service, Queensland Department of Primary Industries & Fisheries, 280 Grindle Road, Wacol Qld 4076, Australia
A. DE VOS
Affiliation:
Tick Fever Centre, Animal and Plant Health Service, Queensland Department of Primary Industries & Fisheries, 280 Grindle Road, Wacol Qld 4076, Australia
W. JORGENSEN
Affiliation:
Agency for Food and Fibre Sciences, Department of Primary Industries & Fisheries, Locked Mail Bag No. 4, Moorooka QLD 4105, Australia
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Tick fever or cattle fever (babesiosis) is economically the most important arthropod-borne disease of cattle worldwide with vast areas of Australia, Africa, South and Central America and the United States continuously under threat. Tick fever was the first disease for which transmission by an arthropod to a mammal was implicated at the turn of the twentieth century and is the first disease to be eradicated from a continent (North America). This review describes the biology of Babesia spp. in the host and the tick, the scale of the problem to the cattle industry, the various components of control programmes, epidemiology, pathogenesis, immunity, vaccination and future research. The emphasis is on Babesia bovis and Babesia bigemina.

Keywords

Babesiaintracellular protozoaixodid tickepidemiologyvaccine
Type
Research Article
Information
Parasitology , Volume 129 , Issue S1 , October 2004 , pp. S247 - S269
Copyright
© 2004 Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

AGBEDE, R. I. S., KEMP, D. H. & HOYTE, H. M. D. ( 1986). Secretory and digest cells of female Boophilus microplus: invasion and development of Babesia bovis; light and electron microscope studies. In Morphology, Physiology and Behavioural Biology of Ticks ( ed. Sauer, J. R. & Hair, A. J.), pp. 457–471. New York, Wiley and Sons.
AHMED, J. S. ( 2002). The role of cytokines in immunity and immunopathogenesis of pirolasmoses. Parasitology Research 88 (Suppl.), S48–S50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
ALLRED, D. R. ( 1995). Immune evasion by Babesia bovis and Plasmodium falciparum: cliff-dwellers of the parasite world. Parasitology Today 11, 100–105.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
ALLRED, D. R. ( 2001). Antigenic variation in babesiosis: is there more than one ‘why’? Microbes and Infection 3, 481–491.Google Scholar
ALLRED, D. R. ( 2003). Babesiosis: persistence in the face of adversity. Trends in Parasitology 19, 51–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
ALLSOPP, M. T., CAVALIER-SMITH, T., De WAAL, D. T. & ALLSOPP, B. A. ( 1994). Phylogeny and evolution of the piroplasms. Parasitology 108, 147–152.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
ANGUS, B. ( 1996). The history of the cattle tick Boophilus microplus in Australia and achievements in its control. International Journal of Parasitology 26, 1341–1355.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
ANONYMOUS ( 1984). Ticks and Tick-borne Disease Control: A Practical Field Manual. Vol. II. Tick-borne Disease Control. Rome, FAO.
AUGER, M. J. & ROSS, J. A. ( 1992). The biology of the macrophage. In The Macrophage ( ed. Lewis, C. E. & McGee, J. O. D.), pp. 1–57. Oxford, IRL Press.
BABES, V. ( 1888). Sur l'hemoglobinurie bacterienne du boeuf. Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des seances de l'Academie des Sciences, Paris 107, 692–694.Google Scholar
BOCK, R. E. & DE VOS, A. J. ( 2001). Immunity following use of Australian tick fever vaccine: a review of the evidence. Australian Veterinary Journal 79, 832–839.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
BOCK, R. E., DE VOS, A. J., KINGSTON, T. G. & McLELLAN, D. J. ( 1997 a). Effect of breed of cattle on innate resistance to infection with Babesia bovis, B. bigemina and Anaplasma marginale [Published erratum appears in Australian Veterinary Journal 1997; 75: 449]. Australian Veterinary Journal 75, 337–340.Google Scholar
BOCK, R. E., DE VOS, A. J., KINGSTON, T. G., SHIELS, I. A. & DALGLIESH, R. J. ( 1992). Investigations of breakdowns in protection provided by living Babesia bovis vaccine. Veterinary Parasitology 43, 45–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
BOCK, R. E., DE VOS, A. J., LEW, A. E., KINGSTON, T. G. & FRASER, I. R. ( 1995). Studies on failure of T strain live Babesia bovis vaccine. Australian Veterinary Journal 72, 296–300.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
BOCK, R. E., DE VOS, A. J., RAYNER, A. C., LEHMANN, W., SINGH, S. & MOLLOY, J. B. ( 1997 b). Assessment of the risk of tick fever mortalities in north-western Queensland beef industry. In Challenging the Boundaries, Proceedings of Annual Conference, Australian Association of Cattle Veterinarians, pp. 175–182. Brisbane, Australian Veterinary Association.
BOCK, R. E., KINGSTON, T. G. & DE VOS, A. J. ( 1999 a). Effect of breed of cattle on transmission rate and innate resistance to infection with Babesia bovis and B. bigemina transmitted by Boophilus microplus. Australian Veterinary Journal 77, 461–464.Google Scholar
BOCK, R. E., KINGSTON, T. G., STANDFAST, N. F. & DE VOS, A. J. ( 1999 b). Effect of cattle breed on innate resistance to inoculations of Babesia bigemina. Australian Veterinary Journal 77, 465–466.Google Scholar
BOCK, R. E., LEW, A. E., MINCHIN, C. M., JESTON, P. J. & JORGENSEN, W. K. ( 2000). Application of PCR assays to determine the genotype of Babesia bovis parasites isolated from cattle with clinical babesiosis soon after vaccination against tick fever. Australian Veterinary Journal 78, 179–181.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
BÖSE, R., JORGENSEN, W. K., DALGLIESH, R. J., FRIEDHOFF, K. T. & DE VOS, A. J. ( 1995). Current state and future trends in the diagnosis of babesiosis. Veterinary Parasitology 57, 61–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
BOUATTOUR, A., DARGHOUTH, M. A. & DAOUD, A. ( 1999). Distribution and ecology of ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) infesting livestock in Tunisia: an overview of eight years field collections. Parassitologia 41 (Suppl.), S5–S10.Google Scholar
BROWN, W. C., ESTES, D. M., CHANTLER, S. E., KEGERREIS, K. A. & SUAREZ, C. E. ( 1998). DNA and a CpG oligonucleotide derived from Babesia bovis are mitogenic for bovine B cells. Infection and Immunity 66, 5423–5432.Google Scholar
BROWN, W. C. & LOGAN, K. S. ( 1992). Babesia bovis: bovine helper T cell lines reactive with soluble and membrane antigens of merozoites. Experimental Parasitology 74, 188–199.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
BROWN, W. C., LOGAN, K. S., WAGNER, G. G. & TETZLAFF, C. L. ( 1991). Cell-mediated immune responses to Babesia bovis merozoite antigens in cattle following infection with tick-derived or cultured parasites. Infection and Immunity 59, 2418–2426.Google Scholar
BROWN, W. C. & PALMER, G. H. ( 1999). Designing blood-stage vaccines against Babesia bovis and B. bigemina. Parasitology Today 15, 275–281.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
BROWN, W. C., RUEF, B. J., NORIMINE, J., KEGERREIS, K. A., SUAREZ, C. E., CONLEY, P. G., STICH, R. W., CARSON, K. H. & RICE-FICHT, A. C. ( 2001). A novel 20-kilodalton protein conserved in Babesia bovis and B. bigemina stimulates memory CD4(+) T lymphocyte responses in B. bovis-immune cattle. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology 118, 97–109.Google Scholar
BROWN, W. C., ZHAO, S., WOODS, V. M., DOBBELAERE, D. A. & RICE-FICHT, A. C. ( 1993). Babesia bovis-specific CD4+ T cell clones from immune cattle express either the Th0 or Th1 profile of cytokines. Revue D'Elevage et De Medecine Veterinaire Des Pays Tropicaux 46, 65–69.Google Scholar
CAEIRO, V. ( 1999). General review of tick species present in Portugal. Parassitologia 41, 11–15.Google Scholar
CALLOW, L. L. ( 1977). Vaccination against bovine babesiosis. In Immunity to Blood Parasites of Man and Animals ( ed. Miller, L. H., Pino, J. A. & McKelvey Jr., J. J.), pp. 121–149. New York, Plenum Press.CrossRef
CALLOW, L. L. ( 1979). Some aspects of the epidemiology and control of bovine babesiosis in Australia. Journal of the South African Veterinary Association 50, 353–356.Google Scholar
CALLOW, L. L. ( 1984). Piroplasms. In Animal Health in Australia, Protozoal and Rickettsial Diseases, vol. 5. Animal Health in Australia, pp. 121–160. Canberra, Australian Bureau of Animal Health, AGPS.
CALLOW, L. L. & DALGLIESH, R. J. ( 1980). The development of effective, safe vaccination against babesiosis and anaplasmosis in Australia. In Ticks and Tick-borne Diseases. Proceedings of a Symposium held at the 56th Annual Conference of the Australian Veterinary Association ( ed. Johnston, L. A. Y. & Cooper, M. G.), pp. 4–8. Townsville, Australian Veterinary Association.
CALLOW, L. L., DALGLIESH, R. J. & DE VOS, A. J. ( 1997). Development of effective living vaccines against bovine babesiosis – the longest field trial? International Journal for Parasitology 27, 747–767.Google Scholar
CALLOW, L. L. & HOYTE, H. M. D. ( 1961). Transmission experiments using Babesia bigemina, Theileria mutans, Borrelia sp. and the tick cattle Boophilus microplus. Australian Veterinary Journal 37, 381–390.Google Scholar
CALLOW, L. L., McGREGOR, W., PARKER, R. J. & DALGLIESH, R. J. ( 1974 a). The immunity of cattle to Babesia argentina after drug sterilisation of infections of varying duration. Australian Veterinary Journal 50, 6–11.Google Scholar
CALLOW, L. L., McGREGOR, W., PARKER, R. J. & DALGLIESH, R. J. ( 1974 b). Immunity of cattle to Babesia bigemina following its elimination from the host, with observations on antibody levels detected by the indirect fluorescent antibody test. Australian Veterinary Journal 50, 12–15.Google Scholar
CALLOW, L. L., MELLORS, L. T. & McGREGOR, W. ( 1979). Reduction in virulence of Babesia bovis due to rapid passage in splenectomized cattle. International Journal for Parasitology 9, 333–338.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
CALLOW, L. L., QUIROGA, Q. C. & McCOSKER, P. J. ( 1976). Serological comparison of Australian and South American strains of Babesia argentina and Anaplasma marginale. International Journal for Parasitology 6, 307–310.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
CALLOW, L. L., ROGERS, R. J. & DE VOS, A. J. ( 1993). Tick-borne diseases: cattle-pathology and serology. In Australian Standard Diagnostic Techniques for Animal Diseases ( ed. Corner, L. A. & Bagust, T. J.), pp. 1–16. East Melbourne, CSIRO Information Services.
CARSON, C. A., TIMMS, P., COWMAN, A. F. & STEWART, N. P. ( 1990). Babesia bovis: evidence for selection of subpopulations during attenuation. Experimental Parasitology 70, 404–410.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
COURT, R. A., JACKSON, L. A. & LEE, R. P. ( 2001). Elevated anti-parasitic activity in peripheral blood monocytes and neutrophils of cattle infected with Babesia bovis. International Journal for Parasitology 31, 29–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
COWMAN, A. F., TIMMS, P. & KEMP, D. J. ( 1984). DNA polymorphisms and subpopulations in Babesia bovis. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology 11, 91–103.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
CRIADO-FORNELIO, A., MARTINEZ-MARCOS, A., BULING-SARANA, A. & BARBA-CARRETERO, J. C. ( 2003). Molecular studies on Babesia, Theileria and Hepatozoon in southern Europe. Part II. Phylogenetic analysis and evolutionary history. Veterinary Parasitology 114, 173–194.Google Scholar
DALGLIESH, R. J. ( 1972). Effects of low temperature preservation and route of inoculation on infectivity of Babesia bigemina in blood diluted with glycerol. Research in Veterinary Science 13, 540–545.Google Scholar
DALGLIESH, R. J. ( 1993). Babesiosis. In Immunology and Molecular Biology of Parasite Infections ( ed. Warren, S. K.), pp. 352–383. Oxford, Blackwell.
DALGLIESH, R. J., CALLOW, L. L., MELLORS, L. T. & McGREGOR, W. ( 1981 a). Development of a highly infective Babesia bigemina vaccine of reduced virulence. Australian Veterinary Journal 57, 8–11.Google Scholar
DALGLIESH, R. J., JORGENSEN, W. K. & DE VOS, A. J. ( 1990). Australian frozen vaccines for the control of babesiosis and anaplasmosis in cattle – a review. Tropical Animal Health and Production 22, 44–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DALGLIESH, R. J., MOLLOY, J. B., JORGENSEN, W. K. & BOCK, R. E. ( 1995). Do parasite antigens on erythrocytes determine host–parasite relationships in Babesia infections in cattle? Lessons from Malaria. In Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Tick-borne Pathogens at the Host–vector Interface: A Global perspective ( ed. Coons, L. & Rothchild, M.). Berg-en-dal, South Africa, United Litho.
DALGLIESH, R. J. & STEWART, N. P. ( 1982). Some effects of time, temperature and feeding on infection rates with Babesia bovis and Babesia bigemina in Boophilus microplus larvae. International Journal for Parasitology 12, 323–326.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DALGLIESH, R. J. & STEWART, N. P. ( 1983). The use of tick transmission by Boophilus microplus to isolate pure strains of Babesia bovis, Babesia bigemina and Anaplasma marginale from cattle with mixed infections. Veterinary Parasitology 13, 317–323.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DALGLIESH, R. J., STEWART, N. P. & CALLOW, L. L. ( 1978). Transmission of Babesia bigemina by transfer of adult male Boophilus microplus [letter]. Australian Veterinary Journal 54, 205–206.Google Scholar
DALGLIESH, R. J., STEWART, N. P. & RODWELL, B. J. ( 1981 b). Increased numbers of strahlenkörper in Boophilus microplus ticks ingesting a blood-passaged strain of Babesia bigemina. Research in Veterinary Science 31, 350–352.Google Scholar
DALRYMPLE, B. P. ( 1993). Molecular variation and diversity in candidate vaccine antigens from Babesia. Acta Tropica 53, 227–238.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DE VOS, A. J. ( 1978). Immunogenicity and pathogenicity of three South African strains of Babesia bovis in Bos indicus cattle. Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research 45, 119–124.Google Scholar
DE VOS, A. J. ( 1979). Epidemiology and control of bovine babesiosis in South Africa. Journal of the South African Veterinary Association 50, 357–362.Google Scholar
DE VOS, A. J., BESSENGER, R. & FOURIE, C. G. ( 1982). Virulence and heterologous strain immunity of South African and Australian Babesia bovis strains with reduced pathogenicity. Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research 49, 133–136.Google Scholar
DE VOS, A. J., COMBRINK, M. P. & BESSENGER, R. ( 1982). Babesia bigemina vaccine: comparison of the efficacy and safety of Australian and South African strains under experimental conditions in South Africa. Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research 49, 155–158.Google Scholar
DE VOS, A. J., DALGLIESH, R. J. & CALLOW, L. L. ( 1987). Babesia. In Immune Responses in Parasitic Infections: Immunology, Immunopathology and Immunoprophylaxis, vol. III ( ed. Soulsby, E. J. L.). Boca Raton, CRC Press Inc.
DE VOS, A. J., DALGLIESH, R. J. & McGREGOR, W. ( 1986). Effect of imidocarb dipropionate prophylaxis on the infectivity and immunogenicity of a Babesia bovis vaccine in cattle. Australian Veterinary Journal 63, 174–178.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DE VOS, A. J. & JORGENSEN, W. K. ( 1992). Protection of cattle against babesiosis in tropical and subtropical countries with a live, frozen vaccine. In Tick Vector Biology, Medical and Veterinary Aspects ( ed. Fivaz, B. H., Petney, T. N. & Horak, I. G.), pp. 159–174. London, Springer Verlag.
DE VOS, A. J., JORGENSEN, W. K. & MOLLOY, J. B. ( 2000). Bovine babesiosis. In Manual of Standards for Diagnostic Tests and Vaccines, Fourth Edition, pp. 412–422. Paris, Office International des Epizootic.
DE VOS, A. J. & POTGIETER, F. T. ( 1983). The effect of tick control on the epidemiology of bovine babesiosis. Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research 50, 3–5.Google Scholar
DE VOS, A. J. & POTGIETER, F. T. ( 1994). Bovine babesiosis. In Infectious Diseases of Livestock ( ed. Coetzer, J. A. W., Thomson, G. R. & Tustin, R. C.), pp. 278–294. Capetown, Oxford University Press.
DE WAAL, D. T. ( 1996). Vaccination against babesiosis. In Acta Parasitologica Turcica, Proceedings of the VIII International Congress of Parasitology – New Dimensions in Parasitology, vol. 20 (Suppl. 1) ( ed. Özcel, M. A.), pp. 487–499. Izmir, Turkish Society for Parasitology.
EDELHOFER, R., KANOUT, A., SCHUH, M. & KUTZER, E. ( 1998). Improved disease resistance after Babesia divergens vaccination. Parasitology Research 84, 181–187.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
FRERICHS, W. M., JOHNSON, A. J. & HOLBROOK, A. A. ( 1969). Equine piroplasmosis: attempts to infect laboratory animals with Babesia equi. American Journal of Veterinary Research 30, 1333–1336.Google Scholar
FRIEDHOFF, K. T. ( 1988). Transmission of Babesia. In Babesiosis of Domestic Animals and Man ( ed. Ristic, M.), pp. 23–52. Boca Raton, Florida, CRC Press, Inc.
GALE, K. R., WALTISBUHL, D. J., BOWDEN, J. M., JORGENSEN, W. K., MATHESON, J., EAST, I. J., ZAKRZEWSKI, H. & LEATCH, G. ( 1998). Amelioration of virulent Babesia bovis infection in calves by administration of the nitric oxide synthase inhibitor aminoguanidine. Parasite Immunology 20, 441–445.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
GOFF, W. L., JOHNSON, W. C., PARISH, S. M., BARRINGTON, G. M., ELSASSER, T. H., DAVIS, W. C. & VALDEZ, R. A. ( 2002). IL-4 and IL-10 inhibition of IFN-gamma- and TNF-alpha-dependent nitric oxide production from bovine mononuclear phagocytes exposed to Babesia bovis merozoites. Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology 84, 237–251.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
GOFF, W. L., JOHNSON, W. C., PARISH, S. M., BARRINGTON, G. M., TUO, W. & VALDEZ, R. A. ( 2001). The age-related immunity in cattle to Babesia bovis infection involves the rapid induction of interleukin-12, interferon-gamma and inducible nitric oxide synthase mRNA expression in the spleen. Parasite Immunology 23, 463–471.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
GOFF, W. L., WAGNER, G. G. & CRAIG, T. M. ( 1984). Increased activity of bovine ADCC effector cells during acute Babesia bovis infection. Veterinary Parasitology 16, 5–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
GOFF, W. L., WAGNER, G. G., CRAIG, T. M. & LONG, R. F. ( 1982). The bovine immune response to tick-derived Babesia bovis infection: serological studies of isolated immunoglobulins. Veterinary Parasitology 11, 109–120.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
GOODGER, B. V., WRIGHT, I. G. & MAHONEY, D. F. ( 1981). Initial characterization of cryoprecipitates in cattle recovering from acute Babesia bovis (Argentina) infection. Australian Journal of Experimental Biology and Medical Science 59, 521–529.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
GOODGER, B. V., WRIGHT, I. G. & WALTISBUHL, D. J. ( 1985). Babesia bovis: the effect of acute inflammation and isoantibody production in the detection of babesial antigens. Experientia 41, 1577–1579.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
GOUGH, J. M., JORGENSEN, W. K. & KEMP, D. H. ( 1998). Development of tick gut forms of Babesia bigemina in vitro. Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology 45, 298–306.Google Scholar
GRAY, J. S. & GANNON, P. ( 1992). Preliminary development of a live drug-controlled vaccine against bovine babesiosis using the Mongolian gerbil, Meriones unguiculatus. Veterinary Parasitology 42, 179–188.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
GRAY, J. S., LANGLEY, R. J., BROPHY, P. O. & GANNON, P. ( 1989). Vaccination against bovine babesiosis with drug-controlled live parasites [published erratum appears in Veterinary Record 1989 Dec 23–30; 125(26–27): 646]. Veterinary Record 125, 369–372.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
HINES, S. A., PALMER, G. H., JASMER, D. P., GOFF, W. L. & McELWAIN, T. F. ( 1995). Immunization of cattle with recombinant Babesia bovis merozoite surface antigen-1. Infection and Immunity 63, 349–352.Google Scholar
HOSKING, B. C., BOCK, R. E., SCHMID, H. R. & GRAF, J.-F. ( 2004). Fluazuron has no influence on the transmission of Babesia bovis. Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research, In press.Google Scholar
HOYTE, H. M. ( 1961). Initial development of infectious Babesia bigemina. Australian Veterinary Journal 8, 462–466.Google Scholar
HUBALEK, Z. ( 1996). Cryopreservation of Microorganisms at Ultra-Low Temperatures. Kvetna, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic.
HUGOSON, G., VENNSTRÖM, R. & HENRIKSSON, K. ( 1968). The occurrence of bovine leukosis following the introduction of babesiosis vaccination. Bibliotheca Haematologica 30, 157–161.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
JACOBSON, R. H., PARRODI, F., WRIGHT, I. G., FITZGERALD, C. J. & DOBSON, C. ( 1993). Babesia bovis: in vitro phagocytosis promoted by immune serum and by antibodies produced against protective antigens. Parasitology Research 79, 221–226.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
JENKINS, M. C. ( 2001). Advances and prospects for subunit vaccines against protozoa of veterinary importance. Veterinary Parasitology 101, 291–310.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
JOHNSON, W. C., CLUFF, C. W., GOFF, W. L. & WYATT, C. R. ( 1996). Reactive oxygen and nitrogen intermediates and products from polyamine degradation are Babesiacidal in vitro. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 791, 136–147.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
JOHNSTON, L. A., LEATCH, G. & JONES, P. N. ( 1978). The duration of latent infection and functional immunity in droughtmaster and hereford cattle following natural infection with Babesia argentina and Babesia bigemina. Australian Veterinary Journal 54, 14–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
JOHNSTON, L. A., TRUEMAN, K. F. & PEARSON, R. D. ( 1977). Bovine babesiosis: comparison of fluorescent antibody and giemsa staining in post-mortem diagnosis of infeciton. Australian Veterinary Journal 53, 222–226.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
JORGENSEN, W. K., BOCK, R. E., KINGSTON, T. G., DE VOS, A. J. & WALDRON, S. J. ( 1993). Assessment of tetracycline and Babesia culture supernatant as prophylactics for moderating reactions in cattle to live Babesia and Anaplasma vaccines. Australian Veterinary Journal 70, 35–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
JORGENSEN, W. K., DE VOS, A. J. & DALGLIESH, R. J. ( 1989 a). Comparison of immunogenicity and virulence between Babesia bigemina parasites from continuous culture and from a splenectomised calf. Australian Veterinary Journal 66, 371–372.Google Scholar
JORGENSEN, W. K., DE VOS, A. J. & DALGLIESH, R. J. ( 1989 b). Infectivity of cryopreserved Babesia bovis, Babesia bigemina and Anaplasma centrale for cattle after thawing, dilution and incubation at 30 degrees C. Veterinary Parasitology 31, 243–251.Google Scholar
JORGENSEN, W. K. & WALDRON, S. J. ( 1994). Use of in vitro culture to isolate Babesia bovis from Theileria buffeli, Eperythrozoon wenyoni and Anaplasma spp. Veterinary Parasitology 53, 45–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
JORGENSEN, W. K., WALDRON, S. J., McGRATH, J., ROMAN, R. J., DE VOS, A. J. & WILLIAMS, K. E. ( 1992). Growth of Babesia bigemina parasites in suspension cultures for vaccine production. Parasitology Research 78, 423–426.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
LAWRENCE, J. A., MALIKA, J., WHITELAND, A. P. & KAFUWA, P. ( 1993). Efficacy of an Australian Babesia bovis vaccine strain in Malawi. Veterinary Record 132, 295–296.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
LEGG, J. ( 1935). The occurrence of bovine babesiellosis in Northern Australia. Australian Commonwealth Council for Scientific and Industrial Research. Pamphlet 56, 1–48.Google Scholar
LEVINE, N. D. ( 1971). Taxonomy of the piroplasms. Transactions of the American Microscopical Society 90, 2–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
LEVINE, N. D. ( 1985). Veterinary Protozoology. Ames, Iowa State University Press.
LEW, A. E., BOCK, R. E., CROFT, J. M., MINCHIN, C. M., KINGSTON, T. G. & DALGLIESH, R. J. ( 1997 a). Genotypic diversity in field isolates of Babesia bovis from cattle with babesiosis after vaccination. Australian Veterinary Journal 75, 575–578.Google Scholar
LEW, A. E., DALRYMPLE, B. P., JESTON, P. J. & BOCK, R. E. ( 1997 b). PCR methods for the discrimination of Babesia bovis isolates. Veterinary Parasitology 71, 223–237.Google Scholar
LIGNIÈRES, J. ( 1903). Bovine babesiosis. New investigations and observations on the multiplicity, the evolution and natural transmission of the parasites involved in the disease and on vaccination. Archives de Parasitologie 7, 398–407.Google Scholar
LOHR, K. F. ( 1973). Susceptibility of non-splenectomized and splenectomized Sahiwal cattle to experimental Babesia bigemina infection. Zentralblatt für Veterinarmedizin Reihe [B] 20, 52–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MACKENSTEDT, U., GAUER, M., FUCHS, P., ZAPF, F., SCHEIN, E. & MEHLHORN, H. ( 1995). DNA measurements reveal differences in the life cycles of Babesia bigemina and B. canis, two typical members of the genus Babesia. Parasitology Research 81, 595–604.Google Scholar
MACKENSTEDT, U., GAUER, M., MEHLHORN, H., SCHEIN, E. & HAUSCHILD, S. ( 1990). Sexual cycle of Babesia divergens confirmed by DNA measurements. Parasitology Research 76, 199–206.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MAHONEY, D. F. ( 1964). Bovine babesiosis: an assessment of the significance of complement fixing antibody based upon experimental infection. Australian Veterinary Journal 40, 369–375.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MAHONEY, D. F. ( 1967 a). Bovine babesiosis: preparation and assessment of complement fixing antigens. Experimental Parasitology 20, 232–241.Google Scholar
MAHONEY, D. F. ( 1967 b). Bovine babesiosis: the immunization of cattle with killed Babesia argentina. Experimental Parasitology 20, 125–129.Google Scholar
MAHONEY, D. F. ( 1967 c). Bovine babesiosis: the passive immunization of calves against Babesia argentina with special reference to the role of complement fixing antibodies. Experimental Parasitology 20, 119–124.Google Scholar
MAHONEY, D. F. ( 1969). Bovine babesiasis: a study of factors concerned in transmission. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 63, 1–14.Google Scholar
MAHONEY, D. F. ( 1972). Immune responses to hemoprotozoa II. Babesia spp. In Immunity to Animal Parasites ( ed. Soulsby, E. J. L.), pp. 301–341. New York, Academic Press.
MAHONEY, D. F. ( 1974). The application of epizootiological principals in the control of Babesiosis in cattle. Bulletin of Office International Des Epizooties 81, 123–138.Google Scholar
MAHONEY, D. F. ( 1986). Studies on the protection of cattle against Babesia bovis infection. In The Ruminant Immune System in Health and Disease ( ed. Morrison, W. I.), pp. 539–544. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
MAHONEY, D. F. & GOODGER, B. V. ( 1969). Babesia argentina: serum changes in infected calves. Experimental Parasitology 24, 375–382.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MAHONEY, D. F., KERR, J. D., GOODGER, B. V. & WRIGHT, I. G. ( 1979 a). The immune response of cattle to Babesia bovis (syn. B. argentina). Studies on the nature and specificity of protection. International Journal for Parasitology 9, 297–306.Google Scholar
MAHONEY, D. F. & MIRRE, G. B. ( 1971). Bovine babesiasis: estimation of infection rates in the tick vector Boophilus microplus (Canestrini). Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 65, 309–317.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MAHONEY, D. F. & MIRRE, G. B. ( 1979). A note on the transmission of Babesia bovis (syn. B. argentina) by the one-host tick, Boophilus microplus. Research in Veterinary Science 26, 253–254.Google Scholar
MAHONEY, D. F. & ROSS, D. R. ( 1972). Epizootiological factors in the control of bovine babesiosis. Australian Veterinary Journal 48, 292–298.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MAHONEY, D. F., WRIGHT, I. G. & GOODGER, B. V. ( 1979 b). Immunity in cattle to Babesia bovis after single infections with parasites of various origin. Australian Veterinary Journal 55, 10–12.Google Scholar
MAHONEY, D. F., WRIGHT, I. G., GOODGER, B. V., MIRRE, G. B., SUTHERST, R. W. & UTECH, K. B. ( 1981). The transmission of Babesia bovis in herds of European and ZeburEuropean cattle infested with the tick, Boophilus microplus. Australian Veterinary Journal 57, 461–469.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MAHONEY, D. F., WRIGHT, I. G. & MIRRE, G. B. ( 1973). Bovine babesiasis: the persistence of immunity to Babesia argentina and B. bigemina in calves (Bos taurus) after naturally acquired infection. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 67, 197–203.Google Scholar
MANGOLD, A. J., VANZINI, V. R., ECHAIDE, I. E., DE ECHAIDE, S. T., VOLPOGNI, M. M. & GUGLIELMONE, A. A. ( 1996). Viability after thawing and dilution of simultaneously cryopreserved vaccinal Babesia bovis and Babesia bigemina strains cultured in vitro. Veterinary Parasitology 61, 345–348.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MASON, T. E., POTGIETER, F. T. & VAN RENSBURG, L. ( 1986). The inability of a South African Babesia bovis vaccine strain to infect Boophilus microplus. Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research 53, 143–145.Google Scholar
McCOSKER, P. J. ( 1981). The global importance of babesiosis. In Babesiosis ( ed. Ristic, M. & Kreier, J. P.), pp. 1–24. New York, Academic Press.
McELWAIN, T. F., PERRYMAN, L. E., MUSOKE, A. J. & McGUIRE, T. C. ( 1991). Molecular characterization and immunogenicity of neutralization-sensitive Babesia bigemina merozoite surface proteins. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology 47, 213–222.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McGUIRE, T. C., MUSOKE, A. J. & KURTTI, T. ( 1979). Functional properties of bovine IgG1 and IgG2: interaction with complement, macrophages, neutrophils and skin. Immunology 38, 249–256.Google Scholar
McLEOD, R. & KRISTJANSON, P. ( 1999). Final report of joint esys/ILRI/ACIAR TickCost project – Economic impact of ticks and tick-borne diseases to livestock in Africa, Asia and Australia. International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi.
MEHLHORN, H. & SHEIN, E. ( 1984). The piroplasms: life cycle and sexual stages. Advances in Parasitology 23, 37–103.Google Scholar
MELLORS, L. T., DALGLIESH, R. J., TIMMS, P., RODWELL, B. J. & CALLOW, L. L. ( 1982). Preparation and laboratory testing of a frozen vaccine containing Babesia bovis, Babesia bigemina and Anaplasma centrale. Research in Veterinary Science 32, 194–197.Google Scholar
MOLLOY, J. B., BOWLES, P. M., BOCK, R. E., TURTON, J. A., KATSANDE, T. C., KATENDE, J. M., MABIKACHECHE, L. G., WALDRON, S. J., BLIGHT, G. W. & DALGLIESH, R. J. ( 1998 a). Evaluation of an ELISA for detection of antibodies to Babesia bovis in cattle in Australia and Zimbabwe. Preventive Veterinary Medicine 33, 59–67.Google Scholar
MOLLOY, J. B., BOWLES, P. M., JESTON, P. J., BRUYERES, A. G., BOWDEN, J. M., BOCK, R. E., JORGENSEN, W. K., BLIGHT, G. W. & DALGLIESH, R. J. ( 1998 b). Development of an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for detection of antibodies to Babesia bigemina in cattle. Parasitology Research 84, 651–656.Google Scholar
MONTENEGRO-JAMES, S. ( 1989). Immunoprophylactic control of bovine babesiosis: role of exoantigens of Babesia. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 83 (Suppl.), S85–S94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MONTENEGRO-JAMES, S., TORO, M., LEON, E. & GUILLEN, A. T. ( 1992). Field evaluation of an exoantigen-containing Babesia vaccine in Venezuela. Memorias Do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz 87 (Suppl. 3), 283–288.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
NDI, C., BAYEMI, P. H., EKUE, F. N. & TAROUNGA, B. ( 1991). Preliminary observations on ticks and tick-borne diseases in the north west province of Cameroon. I. Babesiosis and anaplasmosis. Revue D'Elevage Et De Medecine Veterinaire Des Pays Tropicaux 44, 263–265.Google Scholar
NORIMINE, J., SUAREZ, C. E., McELWAIN, T. F., FLORIN-CHRISTENSEN, M. & BROWN, W. C. ( 2002). Immunodominant epitopes in Babesia bovis rhoptry-associated protein 1 that elicit memory CD4(+)-T-lymphocyte responses in B. bovis-immune individuals are located in the amino-terminal domain. Infection and Immunity 70, 2039–2048.Google Scholar
NORVAL, R. A. I., PERRY, B. D. & HARGREAVES, S. K. ( 1992). Tick and tick-borne disease control in Zimbabwe: what might the future hold? Zimbabwe Veterinary Journal 23, 1–15.Google Scholar
PALMER, G. H. & McELWAIN, T. F. ( 1995). Molecular basis for vaccine development against anaplasmosis and babesiosis. Veterinary Parasitology 57, 233–253.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
PARKER, R. J., SHEPHERD, R. K., TRUEMAN, K. F., JONES, G. W., KENT, A. S. & POLKINGHORNE, I. G. ( 1985). Susceptibility of Bos indicus and Bos taurus to Anaplasma marginale and Babesia bigemina infections. Veterinary Parasitology 17, 205–213.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
PATARROYO, J. H., PRATES, A. A., TAVARES, C. A., MAFRA, C. L. & VARGAS, M. I. ( 1995). Exoantigens of an attenuated strain of Babesia bovis used as a vaccine against bovine babesiosis. Veterinary Parasitology 59, 189–199.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
PEGRAM, R. G., WILSON, D. D. & HANSEN, J. W. ( 2000). Past and present national tick control programs. Why they succeed or fail. Annals of The New York Academy of Sciences 916, 546–554.Google Scholar
PERRY, B. D. ( 1996). Epidemiological indicators and their application to the control of tick-borne diseases. In Manual on Tick and Tick-borne Disease Control. Rome, FAO.
PERRY, B. D., CHAMBOKO, T., MAHAN, S. M., MEDLEY, G. F., MINJAUW, B., O'CALLAGHAN, C. J. & PETER, T. F. ( 1998). The economics of integrated tick and tick borne disease control on commercial farms in Zimbabwe. Zimbabwe Veterinary Journal 29, 21–29.Google Scholar
PIPANO, E. ( 1995). Live vaccines against hemoparasitic diseases in livestock. Veterinary Parasitology 57, 213–231.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
PIPANO, E. ( 1997). Vaccines against hemoparasitic diseases in Israel with special reference to quality assurance. Tropical Animal Health and Production 29 (Suppl.), S86–S90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
PIPANO, E., MARKOVICS, A., KRIEGEL, Y., FRANK, M. & FISH, L. ( 1987). Use of long-acting oxytetracycline in the immunisation of cattle against Babesia bovis and B. bigemina. Research in Veterinary Science 43, 64–66.Google Scholar
POTGIETER, F. T. ( 1977). The life cycle of Babesia bovis and Babesia bigemina in ticks and in cattle in South Africa. PhD thesis, Rand Afrikaans University.
POTGIETER, F. T. & ELS, H. J. ( 1976). Light and electron microscopic observations on the development of small merozoites of Babesia bovis in Boophilus microplus larvae. Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research 43, 123–128.Google Scholar
POTGIETER, F. T. & ELS, H. J. ( 1977 a). The fine structure of intra-erythrocytic stages of Babesia bigemina. Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research 44, 157–168.Google Scholar
POTGIETER, F. T. & ELS, H. J. ( 1977 b). Light and electron microscopic observations on the development of Babesia bigemina in larvae, nymphae and non-replete females of Boophilus decoloratus. Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research 44, 213–231.Google Scholar
POTGIETER, F. T. & ELS, H. J. ( 1979). An electron microscopic study of intra-erythrocytic stages of Babesia bovis in the brain capillaries of infected splenectomized calves. Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research 46, 41–49.Google Scholar
PUDNEY, M. ( 1992). Cultivation of Babesia. In Recent Developments in the Control of Anaplasmosis, Babesiosis and Cowdriosis ( ed. Dolan, T. T.), pp. 129–140. Nairobi, ILRAD.
PURNELL, R. E. & LEWIS, D. ( 1981). Babesia divergens: combination of dead and live parasites in an irradiated vaccine. Research in Veterinary Science 30, 18–21.Google Scholar
RAMSAY, G. C. ( 1997). Setting animal health priorities: a veterinary and economic analysis with special reference to the control of Babesia bovis in central Queensland. PhD thesis, The University of Queensland.
REDUKER, D. W., JASMER, D. P., GOFF, W. L., PERRYMAN, L. E., DAVIS, W. C. & McGUIRE, T. C. ( 1989). A recombinant surface protein of Babesia bovis elicits bovine antibodies that react with live merozoites. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology 35, 239–247.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
RIEK, R. F. ( 1963). Immunity to babesiosis. In Immunity to Protozoa ( ed. Garnham, P. C. C., Pierce, A. E. & Roitt, I.), pp. 160–179. Oxford, Blackwell.
RIEK, R. F. ( 1964). The life cycle of Babesia bigemina (Smith and Kilborne, 1893) in the tick vector Boophilus microplus (Canestrini). Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 15, 802–821.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
RIEK, R. F. ( 1966). The life cycle of Babesia argentina (Lignières, 1903) (Sporozoa: Piroplasmidea) in the vector Boophilus microplus (Canestrini). Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 17, 247–254.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
RODRIGUEZ, S. D., PALMER, G. H., McELWAIN, T. F., McGUIRE, T. C., RUEF, B. J., CHITKO-McKOWN, M. G. & BROWN, W. C. ( 1996). CD4+ T-helper lymphocyte responses against Babesia bigemina rhoptry-associated protein. I. Infection and Immunity 64, 2079–2087.Google Scholar
ROGERS, R. J., DIMMOCK, C. K., DE VOS, A. J. & RODWELL, B. J. ( 1988). Bovine leucosis virus contamination of a vaccine produced in vivo against bovine babesiosis and anaplasmosis. Australian Veterinary Journal 65, 285–287.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
RUDZINSKA, M. A., SPIELMAN, A., LEWENGRUB, S., TRAGER, W. & PIESMAN, J. ( 1983). Sexuality in piroplasms as revealed by electron microscopy in Babesia microti. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 80, 2966–2970.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
SAHIBI, H., RHALEM, A., BERRAG, B. & GOFF, W. L. ( 1998). Bovine babesiosis. Seroprevalence and ticks associated with cattle from two different regions of Morocco. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 849, 213–218.Google Scholar
SAYIN, F., DINCER, S., KARAER, Z., CAKMAK, A., INCI, A., YUKARI, B. A., EREN, H., FRIEDHOFF, K. T. & MULLER, I. ( 1996). Studies on seroprevalence of Babesia infection of cattle in Turkey. In Acta Parasitologica Turcica, Proceedings of the VIII International Congress of Parasitology – New Dimensions in Parasitology, vol. 20 (Suppl. 1) ( ed. Özcel, M. A.), pp. 505–516. Izmir, Turkish Society for Parasitology.
SHKAP, V., PIPANO, E., McELWAIN, T. F., HERZBERG, U., KRIGEL, Y., FISH, L. & PALMER, G. H. ( 1994). Cross-protective immunity induced by Babesia bovis clones with antigenically unrelated variable merozoite surface antigens. Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology 41, 367–374.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
SHODA, L. K., KEGERREIS, K. A., SUAREZ, C. E., RODITI, I., CORRAL, R. S., BERTOT, G. M., NORIMINE, J. & BROWN, W. C. ( 2001). DNA from protozoan parasites Babesia bovis, Trypanosoma cruzi, and T. brucei is mitogenic for B lymphocytes and stimulates macrophage expression of interleukin-12, tumor necrosis factor alpha, and nitric oxide. Infection and Immunity 69, 2162–2171.Google Scholar
SHODA, L. K., PALMER, G. H., FLORIN-CHRISTENSEN, J., FLORIN-CHRISTENSEN, M., GODSON, D. L. & BROWN, W. C. ( 2000). Babesia bovis-stimulated macrophages express interleukin-1beta, interleukin-12, tumor necrosis factor alpha, and nitric oxide and inhibit parasite replication in vitro. Infection and Immunity 68, 5139–5145.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
SINGLETON, E. F. ( 1974). The effect of heat on reproductive function in the bull. PhD thesis, The University of Queensland.
SMITH, R. D., MOLINAR, E., LARIOS, F., MONROY, J., TRIGO, F. & RISTIC, M. ( 1980). Bovine babesiosis: pathogenicity and heterologous species immunity of tick-borne Babesia bovis and B. bigemina infections. American Journal of Veterinary Research 41, 1957–1965.Google Scholar
SMITH, T. & KILBORNE, F. L. ( 1893). Investigations into the nature, causation and prevention of Southern cattle fever. In Ninth Annual Report of the Bureau of Animal Industry for the Year 1892, pp. 177–304. Washington, Government Printing Office.CrossRef
SSERUGGA, J. N., JONSSON, N. N., BOCK, R. E. & MORE, S. J. ( 2003). Serological evidence of exposure to tick fever organisms in young cattle in Queensland dairy farms. Australian Veterinary Journal 81, 147–152.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
STANDFAST, N. F., BOCK, R. E., WIECEK, M. M., DEVOS, A. J., JORGENSEN, W. K. & KINGSTON, T. G. ( 2003). Overcoming constraints to meeting increased demand for Babesia bigemina vaccine in Australia. Veterinary Parasitology 115, 213–222.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
STANDFAST, N. F. & JORGENSEN, W. K. ( 1997). Comparison of the infectivity of Babesia bovis, Babesia bigemina and Anaplasma centrale for cattle after cryopreservation in either dimethylsulphoxide (DMSO) or polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP). Australian Veterinary Journal 75, 62–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
STEWART, N. P., DE VOS, A. J., McHARDY, N. & STANDFAST, N. F. ( 1990). Elimination of Theileria buffeli infections from cattle by concurrent treatment with buparvaquone and primaquine phosphate. Tropical Animal Health and Production 22, 116–122.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
STICH, R. W., RICE-FICHT, A. C., TUO, W. & BROWN, W. C. ( 1999). Babesia bovis: common protein fractions recognized by oligoclonal B. bovis-specific CD4+ T cell lines from genetically diverse cattle. Experimental Parasitology 91, 40–51.Google Scholar
STICH, R. W., SHODA, L. K., DREEWES, M., ADLER, B., JUNGI, T. W. & BROWN, W. C. ( 1998). Stimulation of nitric oxide production in macrophages by Babesia bovis. Infection and Immunity 66, 4130–4136.Google Scholar
SUTHERST, R. W. ( 1987). The dynamics of hybrid zones between tick (Acari) species. International Journal for Parasitology 17, 921–926.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
TAYLOR, R. J. & McHARDY, N. ( 1979). Preliminary observations on the combined use of imidocarb and Babesia blood vaccine in cattle. Journal of the South African Veterinary Association 50, 326–329.Google Scholar
TIMMS, P., DALGLIESH, R. J., BARRY, D. N., DIMMOCK, C. K. & RODWELL, B. J. ( 1983 a). Babesia bovis: comparison of culture-derived parasites, non-living antigen and conventional vaccine in the protection of cattle against heterologous challenge. Australian Veterinary Journal 60, 75–77.Google Scholar
TIMMS, P. & STEWART, N. P. ( 1989). Growth of Babesia bovis parasites in stationary and suspension cultures and their use in experimental vaccination of cattle. Research in Veterinary Science 47, 309–314.Google Scholar
TIMMS, P., STEWART, N. P. & DALGLIESH, R. J. ( 1983 b). Comparison of tick and blood challenge for assessing immunity to Babesia bovis. Australian Veterinary Journal 60, 257–259.Google Scholar
TIMMS, P., STEWART, N. P. & De VOS, A. J. ( 1990). Study of virulence and vector transmission of Babesia bovis by use of cloned parasite lines. Infection and Immunity 58, 2171–2176.Google Scholar
TJORNEHOJ, K. T., LAWRENCE, J. A., WHITELAND, A. P. & KAFUWA, P. T. ( 1996). Field observations on the duration of immunity in cattle after vaccination against Anaplasma and Babesia species. Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research 63, 1–5.Google Scholar
TRUEMAN, K. F. & BLIGHT, G. W. ( 1978). The effect of age on resistance of cattle to Babesia bovis. Australian Veterinary Journal 54, 301–305.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
UILENBERG, G. ( 1995). International collaborative research: significance of tick-borne hemoparasitic diseases to world animal health. Veterinary Parasitology 57, 19–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
VEGA, C. A., BUENING, G. M., RODRIGUEZ, S. D., CARSON, C. A. & McLAUGHLIN, K. ( 1985). Cryopreservation of Babesia bigemina for in vitro cultivation. American Journal of Veterinary Research 46, 421–423.Google Scholar
WALDRON, S. J. & JORGENSEN, W. K. ( 1999). Transmission of Babesia spp. by the cattle tick (Boophilus microplus) to cattle treated with injectable or pour-on formulations of ivermectin and moxidectin. Australian Veterinary Journal 77, 657–659.Google Scholar
WILKOWSKY, S. E., FARBER, M., ECHAIDE, I., TORIONI DE ECHAIDE, S., ZAMORANO, P. I., DOMINGUEZ, M., SUAREZ, C. E. & FLORIN-CHRISTENSEN, M. ( 2003). Babesia bovis merozoite surface protein-2c (MSA-2c) contains highly immunogenic, conserved B-cell epitopes that elicit neutralization-sensitive antibodies in cattle. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology 127, 133–141.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
WILLADSEN, P., BIRD, P., COBON, G. S. & HUNGERFORD, J. ( 1995). Commercialisation of a recombinant vaccine against Boophilus microplus. Parasitology 110 (Suppl.), S43–S50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
WILLADSEN, P. & KEMP, D. H. ( 2003). Challenges and opportunities in the integrated control of parasites: the example of ticks and tick-borne diseases. Journal of Parasitology 89 (Suppl.), S245–S249.Google Scholar
WRIGHT, I. G., CASU, R., COMMINS, M. A., DALRYMPLE, B. P., GALE, K. R., GOODGER, B. V., RIDDLES, P. W., WALTISBUHL, D. J., ABETZ, I., BERRIE, D. A., BOWLES, Y., DIMMOCK, C., HAYES, T., KALNINS, H., LEATCH, G., McCRAE, R., MONTAGUE, P. E., NISBET, I. T., PARRODI, F., PETERS, J. M., SCHEIWE, P. C., SMITH, W., RODE-BRAMANIS, K. & WHITE, M. A. ( 1992). The development of a recombinant Babesia vaccine. Veterinary Parasitology 44, 3–13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
WRIGHT, I. G. & GOODGER, B. V. ( 1988). Pathogenesis of babesiosis. In Babesiosis of Domestic Animals and Man ( ed. Ristic, M.), pp. 99–118. Boca Raton, Florida, CRC Press, Inc.
WRIGHT, I. G., GOODGER, B. V., BUFFINGTON, G. D., CLARK, I. A., PARRODI, F. & WALTISBUHL, D. J. ( 1989). Immunopathophysiology of babesial infections. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 83 (Suppl.), S11–S13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
WRIGHT, I. G., GOODGER, B. V., LEATCH, G., AYLWARD, J. H., RODE-BRAMANIS, K. & WALTISBUHL, D. J. ( 1987). Protection of Babesia bigemina-immune animals against subsequent challenge with virulent Babesia bovis. Infection and Immunity 55, 364–368.Google Scholar
WRIGHT, I. G., MAHONEY, D. F., MIRRE, G. B., GOODGER, B. V. & KERR, J. D. ( 1982). The irradiation of Babesia bovis. II. The immunogenicity of irradiated blood parasites for intact cattle and splenectomised calves. Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology 3, 591–601.Google Scholar
WRIGHT, I. G. & RIDDLES, P. W. ( 1989). Biotechnology in tick-borne diseases: present status, future perspectives. In FAO Expert Consultation of Biotechnology for Livestock Production and Health, pp. 325–340. Rome, FAO.
WYATT, C. R., GOFF, W. & DAVIS, W. C. ( 1991). A flow cytometric method for assessing viability of intraerythrocytic hemoparasites. Journal of Immunological Methods 140, 23–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
YUNKER, C. E., KUTTLER, K. L. & JOHNSON, L. W. ( 1987). Attenuation of Babesia bovis by in vitro cultivation. Veterinary Parasitology 24, 7–13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
ZINTL, A., MULCAHY, G., SKERRETT, H. E., TAYLOR, S. M. & GRAY, J. S. ( 2003). Babesia divergens: a bovine blood parasite of veterinary and zoonotic importance. Clinical Microbiology Reviews 16, 622–636.CrossRefGoogle Scholar