Women are underrepresented in paleontology. Despite more women students, representation at senior levels remains low. To advance professionally, scientists must disseminate their research through peer-reviewed publications. We examine gendered authorship patterns in Paleobiology to ask whether the publishing infrastructure supports the Paleontological Society's gender-equity goals. We reviewed all papers published in Paleobiology from its inception in 1975 through 2021. For each paper, we recorded each author, the author's position in the author list, and the total number of authors on each paper. We coded gender based on a combination of personal communication and pronouns used in publicly available information. We compared author demographics with anonymized membership data from the Paleontological Society. Over the journal's run, the number of authors per paper increased due to cultural shifts toward collaborative work and acknowledging student contributions with coauthorship. These trends contribute to proportionally more women authors, beginning in the early 2000s. Despite these increases, women remain chronically underrepresented. In 2018, 2019, and 2021, the proportion of women authors in Paleobiology paralleled membership in the Paleontological Society. However, in 2020, Paleobiology published fewer women authors than expected based on society membership. This echoes declines in women's scholarly productivity in the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic observed across many disciplines. We offer four recommendations: (1) practice double-anonymous peer review; (2) recruit editors from diverse backgrounds who invite reviewers with diverse backgrounds; (3) democratize manuscript review by selecting reviewers from a disaggregated reviewer database; and (4) gather and analyze demographic data for both submissions and publications.

Body size has a long history of study in paleobiology and underlies many important phenomena in macroevolution. Body-size patterns in the fossil record are often examined by utilizing size data alone, which hinders our ability to describe the biological meaning behind size change on macroevolutionary timescales. Without data reflecting the biological and geologic factors that drive size change, we cannot assess its mechanistic underpinnings.

Existing frameworks for studying ontogeny and phylogeny can remedy this problem, particularly the classic age–size–“shape” space originally developed for studies of heterochrony. When evaluated based on metrics for age, size, and phenotype in populations, proposed mechanisms for size change can be outlined theoretically and tested empirically in the record. Using this framework, we can compare ontogenetic trajectories within and between species and determine how changes in size emerge. Here, we outline ontogenetic mechanisms for evolutionary size change, such as heterochrony, as well as how geologic factors can drive apparent, non-biological size change (e.g., taphonomic size sorting).

To demonstrate the utility of this framework in actual paleobiological problems, we apply it to the Lilliput effect, a compelling and widely documented pattern of size decrease during extinction events. However, little is known about the mechanisms underlying this pattern. We provide a brief history of the Lilliput effect and refine its definition in a framework that can be mechanistically tested. Processes that likely produce Lilliput effects include allometric and sequence repatterning (including heterochrony) and evolutionary size-selective sorting. We describe these mechanisms and highlight relevant examples of the Lilliput effect for which feasible empirical tests are possible.

Strata of the Ediacaran Period (635–538.8 Ma) yield the oldest known fossils of complex, macroscopic organisms in the geologic record. These “Ediacaran-type” macrofossils (known as the Ediacaran biota) first appear in mid-Ediacaran strata, experience an apparent decline through the terminal Ediacaran, and directly precede the Cambrian (538.8–485.4 Ma) radiation of animals. Existing hypotheses for the origin and demise of the Ediacaran biota include: changing oceanic redox states, biotic replacement by succeeding Cambrian-type fauna, and mass extinction driven by environmental change. Few studies frame trends in Ediacaran and Cambrian macroevolution from the perspective of the sedimentary rock record, despite well-documented Phanerozoic covariation of macroevolutionary patterns and sedimentary rock quantity. Here we present a quantitative analysis of North American Ediacaran–Cambrian rock and fossil records from Macrostrat and the Paleobiology Database. Marine sedimentary rock quantity increases nearly monotonically and by more than a factor of five from the latest Ediacaran to the late Cambrian. Ediacaran–Cambrian fossil quantities exhibit a comparable trajectory and have strong (rs > 0.8) positive correlations with marine sedimentary area and volume flux at multiple temporal resolutions. Even so, Ediacaran fossil quantities are dramatically reduced in comparison to the Cambrian when normalized by the quantity of preserved marine rock. Although aspects of these results are consistent with the expectations of a simple fossil preservation–induced sampling bias, together they suggest that transgression–regression and a large expansion of marine shelf environments coincided with the diversification of animals during a dramatic transition that is starkly evident in both the sedimentary rock and fossil records.

The Late Triassic conodont species Mockina ex gr. carinata and Mockina ex gr. englandi were exceptionally prevalent among the marine fauna of the Panthalassan realm from the middle Norian through to the Rhaetian. Leading into the complete extinction of conodonts near the Triassic/Jurassic boundary, a significant turnover event occurred in conodont fauna across the Norian/Rhaetian boundary (NRB), with the pectiniform elements of common Rhaetian genera from Tethys exhibiting minimal or absent platforms. This intergeneric trend of platform reduction is not as evident in Panthalassa, where these genera are very rare, but morphometric analyses of M. ex gr. carinata and M. ex gr. englandi specimens from across the Canadian Cordillera demonstrate that comparable shifts in morphology occurred intraspecifically in Panthalassa across the NRB, confirming the global extent of these trends. Pectiniform elements of M. ex gr. carinata display a sequential reduction of platform width from the middle Norian to late Norian to Rhaetian, whereas pectiniform elements of M. ex gr. englandi display a reduction of platform width only from the late Norian to Rhaetian. Specimens of both species that have a mid-platform length to breadth ratio greater than 3:1 are restricted to the Rhaetian. Specimens from the Kennecott Point section on Haida Gwaii, British Columbia, demonstrate that this morphological shift occurred somewhat later than other biostratigraphic proxies for the NRB. The global trend of platform width reduction in many conodont pectiniform elements may reflect a change in primary diet away from hard food sources, perhaps suggesting some degree of carbonate biomineralization suppression beginning around the NRB. This interpretation would support CO2 outgassing as the causal mechanism of the environmental disturbance at the NRB and identify the NRB as a significant turning point for Late Triassic ecosystems, marking the beginning of a protracted, multiphase end-Triassic mass extinction.

Corallite sizes reflect a continuum in the efficacy of photosymbiosis in colonial reef corals, with smaller corallite sizes generally associated with higher autotrophy. Using a large compilation of reef-coral traits and corallite diameters as a proxy, we test here the hypothesis that photosymbiotic efficacy has increased over the evolutionary history of scleractinian corals. To gain a more comprehensive understanding of the evolutionary versus ecological patterns of corallite sizes of reef corals, we used three analytical methods: (1) occurrences-weighted within-bin analyses as a proxy for abundance or ecological dominance to depict ecological patterns; (2) unweighted range-through analyses; and (3) unweighted sampled-in-bin analyses to represent diversity in terms of taxonomic richness, enabling us to trace evolutionary patterns. By-genus, range-through analysis indicates a slightly positive trend of corallite sizes toward the Recent. However, the occurrences-weighted assessment shows a pronounced negative trend of corallite sizes in colonial corals since the Mesozoic. Random walk and directional evolution are both statistically supported to explain this long-term decrease. A driven trend is evolutionarily plausible, giving reef corals a selective advantage in the oligotrophic environments they largely occupy today.

Biological variation fuels evolutionary change. Across longer timescales, however, polymorphisms at both the genomic and phenotypic levels often persist longer than would be expected under standard population genetic models such as positive selection or genetic drift. Explaining the maintenance of this variation within populations across long time spans via balancing selection has been a major triumph of theoretical population genetics and ecology. Although persistent polymorphisms can often be traced in fossil lineages over long periods through the rock record, paleobiology has had little to say about either the long-term maintenance of phenotypic variation or its macroevolutionary consequences. I explore the dynamics that occur when persistent polymorphisms maintained over long lineage durations are filtered into descendant lineages during periods of demographic upheaval that occur at speciation. I evaluate these patterns in two lineages: Ectocion, a genus of Eocene mammals, and botryocrinids, a Mississippian cladid crinoid family. Following origination, descendants are less variable than their ancestors. The patterns by which ancestral variation is sorted cannot be distinguished from drift. Maintained and accumulated polymorphisms in highly variable ancestral lineages such as Barycrinus rhombiferus Owen and Shumard, 1852 may fuel radiations as character states are sorted into multiple descendant lineages. Interrogating the conditions under which trans-specific polymorphism is either maintained or lost during periods of demographic and ecological upheaval can explain how population-level processes contribute to the emergent macroevolutionary dynamics that shape the history of life as preserved in the fossil record.

Fossil bones were once living tissues that demanded internal blood perfusion in proportion to their metabolic requirements. Metabolic rates were primarily associated with bone growth (modeling) in the juvenile stages and with alteration and repair of existing bone affected by weight bearing and locomotion (remodeling) in later stages. This study estimates blood flow rates to the tibia shafts of the Late Cretaceous hadrosaurid Maiasaura peeblesorum, based on the size of the primary nutrient foramina in fossil bones. Foramen size quantitatively reflects arterial size and hence blood flow rate. The results showed that the bone metabolic intensity of juveniles (ca. 1 year old) was greater than fourfold higher than that of 6- to 11-year-old adults. This difference is much greater than expected from standard metabolic scaling and is interpreted as a shift from the high metabolic demands for primary bone modeling in the rapidly growing juveniles to a lower metabolic demand of adults to remodel their bones for repair of microfractures accumulated during locomotion and weight bearing. Large nutrient foramina of adults indicate a high level of cursorial locomotion characteristic of tachymetabolic endotherms. The practical value of these results is that juvenile and adult stages should be treated separately in interspecific analyses of bone perfusion in relation to body mass.

The Mississippi River watershed drains 40% of the continental United States, and the tremendous primary productivity in the adjacent north-central Gulf of Mexico has created one of the most extensive dead zones on Earth. In contrast, smaller watersheds deliver fewer nutrients to the northeastern gulf, and consequently, productivity is limited and hypoxia is uncommon. How has variation in primary productivity, oxygen availability, and sea-surface temperature affected coastal food webs? Here, we investigate environmental controls on the size of molluscan predators and prey in the northern Gulf of Mexico using Holocene death assemblages. Linear mixed models indicate that bivalve size and the frequency of drilling predation are affected by dissolved oxygen concentrations; drilling frequency declines with declining oxygen, whereas bivalve size increases. In contrast, sea-surface temperature is positively associated with the size of molluscan predators and prey. Net primary productivity contributes relatively little to predator or prey size, and predator-to-prey size ratios do not vary consistently with environmental conditions across the northern gulf. Larger bivalves in areas of oxygen limitation may be due to decreased predation pressure and, consequently, greater prey longevity. The larger size of bivalves and predatory gastropods in warmer waters may reflect enhanced growth under these conditions, provided dissolved oxygen concentrations exceed a minimum threshold. Holocene death assemblages can be used to test long-standing hypotheses regarding environmental controls on predator−prey body-size distributions through geologic time and provide baselines for assessing the ongoing effects of anthropogenic eutrophication and warming on coastal food webs.

Numerous, high-quality reproduction-related oviraptorosaur fossils have been described. However, oviraptorosaur-style nests are unknown among extant animals, and their curious construction makes nesting behavior difficult to interpret. Experiments were undertaken to better understand oviraptorosaur nesting strategies. A surrogate was constructed and placed atop mock-oviraptorosaur nests built from sand and 36 infertile emu eggs (as Macroolithus approximations) arranged according to the most current nest reconstructions. Thermometers, placed within each egg and throughout the experimental area, recorded energy flow from the surrogate dinosaur into the nesting microenvironment. One experiment examined a basic open nest warmed from above; the second, a fully buried clutch warmed from above; and the third, a nest open like the first but with heating elements (representing hindlimbs) extending down into the nest. It was found that egg temperatures in each scenario surpassed ambient temperatures without requiring excessive energy input. Final clutch temperatures were below most avian values, closer to crocodilian incubation, but are likely conservative, considering experimental parameters. These results may support the idea that an oviraptorosaur could use adult-generated energy to warm a clutch above ambient conditions. Additionally, egg tiers would be warmer and more uniform in temperature if heated by elements within the nest, such as hindlimbs, instead of solely from above. Results from the second experiment indicate that an endothermic adult could possibly warm a clutch fully buried beneath itself despite a barrier. Although not likely a behavior exhibited by oviraptorosaurs, such results suggest an important evolutionary step bridging guarded subterranean eggs and contact-incubated subaerial eggs.

Radiodonta is a clade of stem euarthropods of central importance to our understanding of the evolution of this phylum. Radiodonts include some of the largest early Paleozoic animals; however, little is known about their ontogeny. We present an analysis of molting patterns and ontogeny in the radiodont Stanleycaris based on 265 exceptionally preserved specimens from the mid-Cambrian (Wuliuan) Burgess Shale. Ranging in size from 10 to 83 mm, they constitute the most extensive radiodont ontogenetic series known. Using a novel morphospace approach, we show that putative carcasses and exuviae can be quantitatively distinguished by the particular suites of structures preserved and their modes of preservation. We propose that Stanleycaris, and probably other radiodonts, molted via a suture near the anterior of the trunk. Similar anterior molting strategies, with a suture located at the head–trunk boundary, are shared with some Cambrian euarthropods and are potentially ancestral. Allometric analyses suggest that as Stanleycaris body size increased, the head sclerite and neck became relatively broader, while the trunk and flaps became slightly longer. The eyes developed precociously, indicating an important role of visual processing in juveniles. Finally, we find evidence for an initial anamorphic developmental phase, where segment number increased at least from 11 or 12 up to 17, followed by an epimorphic phase, in which growth continued without segment addition. This is consistent with the hypothesis that finite postembryonic segment addition (hemianamorphosis) is ancestral for arthropods and refines the timing of the origin of this important developmental mode.

The first size reduction (FSR) in the Reticulofenestra-Gephyrocapsa-Emiliania (RGE) lineage (order Isochrysidales), which occurred in the early Oligocene (~32 Ma), is of great significance for understanding the Lilliput effect that has affected coccolithophore communities from the late Eocene to this day. We conducted a morphologic analysis on the coccoliths of Reticulofenestra species that lived during the late middle Eocene to early Oligocene (~40–31 Ma), using marine sediments from the South Atlantic Ocean. Our data show increasing size and decreasing abundance of the large species during the late Eocene, leading to their disappearance at the FSR, and a concurrent decrease in the size variability of the small- to medium-sized coccoliths whose central opening diameter had become very reduced. Although the cosmopolitan late Paleogene through Neogene size decrease in coccolithophores has been linked to the concomitant long-term decline in global pCO2, we suggest here that the FSR was the result of environmental destabilization caused by the expansion of eutrophic environments following the late Eocene establishment of overturning circulation associated with ice buildup on Antarctica. This study also leads us to propose a hypothetical model that links coccolith morphology of species of the RGE lineage and trophic resources in the upper ocean: the small- to medium-sized, r-selected coccolithophores with smaller coccolith central openings live in nutrient-rich waters where they rely mostly on photosynthesis and little on mixotrophy, whereas the larger, K-selected species with larger coccolith central openings live in oligotrophic waters where they are more dependent on mixotrophy.

In 1980, Steven J. Gould published an essay on the emergence of paleobiology as a nomothetic discipline (Gould 1980), nomothetism referring to the search for general laws or principles. Gould contrasted this with the foundation of paleontology, the idiographic tradition of detailing the history of life from the description of new fossil taxa to the elucidation of the long-term patterns of change through time. Among the pioneers of this nomothetic expansion was Jim Valentine. Here I pay tribute to Jim as one of the first paleobiologists, a colleague, coauthor, and friend, emphasizing his intellectual style and insights as much as his lasting contributions. I have written this in part as a eulogy, a remembrance for those who knew him, but also as an introduction to the continuing relevance of his work for those who may be unfamiliar with it.

Melanin pigments are central to colors and patterns in modern vertebrate integuments, which inform upon ecological and behavioral strategies like crypsis, aposematism, and sociosexual selection. Over the last decade, melanin has emerged as a valuable tool for predicting color in exceptionally preserved fossil feathers and subsequent testing of paleobiological hypotheses in long-extinct dinosaurs and birds. Yet much remains to be learned about melanin stability, diagenetic alterations to melanin chemistry, and their implications for “paleocolor reconstruction.” Pressure–temperature maturation experiments with modern feathers offer a way to examine these topics but have mostly been conducted in closed-system capsules or open-system aluminum foil. Both methods have operational limitations and do not consider the filtering effect of porous sediment matrices on thermally labile chemical groups versus stable ones during natural fossilization. We use sediment-encased maturation to resolve this issue and demonstrate replication of organic preservation of melanin highly comparable to compression fossils. Our experiments, coupled with time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry, show predictable volatilization of N/S-bearing molecules and increased melanin cross-linking with elevated temperatures. We also suggest that eumelanin is more stable compared with pheomelanin at higher temperatures, explaining why eumelanic colors (black, dark brown, iridescent) are better preserved in fossils than pheomelanic ones (reddish brown). Furthermore, we propose that proteins preferentially undergo hydrolysis more so than forming N-heterocycles in selectively open systems analogous to natural matrices. Thus, we conclude that melanin pigments and not diagenetically altered protein remnants are the key players in promoting fossilization of soft tissues like feathers.

Foramina of bones are beginning to yield more information about metabolic rates and activity levels of living and extinct species. This study investigates the relationship between estimated blood flow rate to the femur and body mass among cursorial birds extending back to the Late Cretaceous. Data from fossil foramina are compared with those of extant species, revealing similar scaling relationships for all cursorial birds and supporting crown bird–like terrestrial locomotor activity. Because the perfusion rate in long bones of birds is related to the metabolic cost of microfracture repair due to stresses applied during locomotion, as it is in mammals, this study estimates absolute blood flow rates from sizes of nutrient foramina located on the femur shafts. After differences in body mass and locomotor behaviors are accounted for, femoral bone blood flow rates in extinct species are similar to those of extant cursorial birds. Femoral robustness is generally greater in aquatic flightless birds than in terrestrial flightless and ground-dwelling flighted birds, suggesting that the morphology is shaped by life-history demands. Femoral robustness also increases in larger cursorial bird taxa, probably associated with their weight redistribution following evolutionary loss of the tail, which purportedly constrains femur length, aligns it more horizontally, and necessitates increased robustness in larger species.

The nature of phenotypic evolution within lineages is central to many unresolved questions in paleontology and evolutionary biology. Analyses of evolutionary time series of ancestor–descendant populations in the fossil record are likely to make important contributions to many of these debates. However, the limited number of models that have been applied to these types of data may restrict our ability to interpret phenotypic evolution in the fossil record. Using uni- and multivariate models of trait evolution that make different assumptions regarding the dynamics of the adaptive landscape, I evaluate contrasting hypotheses to explain evolution of size in the radiolarian Eucyrtidium calvertense and armor in the stickleback Gasterosteus doryssus. Body-size evolution in E. calvertense is best explained by a model in which the lineage evolves as a consequence of a shift in the adaptive landscape that coincides with the initiation of neosympatry with its sister lineage. Multivariate evolution of armor traits in a stickleback lineage (G. doryssus) shows evidence of adaptation toward independent optima on the adaptive landscape at the same time as traits change in a correlated fashion. The fitted models are available in the R package evoTS, which builds on the paleoTS framework.

Drilling predation is a common reason for mortality of benthic mollusks but did not become common until the late Mesozoic. The scarcity of drill holes in the early Mesozoic fossil record limits our understanding of the evolution of drilling behavior and its role on shaping early Mesozoic marine communities. Here, we use drilling traces on several bivalve taxa from the Lower Jurassic (Pliensbachian) marine soft-bottom deposits in northern Germany to explore behavioral patterns of the predator (e.g., site selectivity, change in site-selective behavior with age). Although none of the known drilling gastropod groups existed in the Pliensbachian, including the studied localities, the drill-hole morphology suggests that the predator was probably a gastropod. The ecology and identity of the target prey changes from a diverse array of epifaunal to infaunal taxa in older deposits to focus on a single, large, deep infaunal taxon, Gresslya intermedia, in younger deposits, suggesting a potential trend in prey selectivity over time. Spatial point pattern analysis of traces (SPPAT) reveals an aggregated pattern of drill holes on Gresslya, suggesting strong selectivity in drill-hole location. Drilling on a single large infaunal taxon and site selectivity are common patterns also inferred previously from the drilled deep infaunal Eothyasira from the Pliensbachian of southern Germany. In addition to the scarcity of predators, the highly specialized behavior of the early drilling predators, including strong prey selectivity in terms of prey identity and life habit, can partly explain the rarity of the early Mesozoic drill holes.

The hyoid apparatus is essential for underwater feeding in marine tetrapods, but it is unclear whether this complex has evolved as convergently as other traits, such as dentition or locomotion. Here we compare the ossified hyoid elements in ophthalmosaurid ichthyosaurs and odontocete cetaceans, two groups with an overall similar body shape, to understand whether the hyoid elements show any signs of convergence in the context of feeding. We examined three types of data (size, morphology, and internal bone microstructure) in ophthalmosaurid and odontocete taxa in which these elements are preserved. Our data show that ichthyosaurs never experienced a shift in feeding mode, which might indicate that their hyoid apparatus never adapted to suction feeding. Also, the internal microstructure of the two animal groups differs; where the odontocetes have an overall less compact structure, ophthalmosaurid ichthyosaurs have cancellous inner cones in an outer, more compact sheath. These differences are likely explained as biomechanical adaptations to different feeding modes. Thus, the hyoid changed less and acted more as a constraint for feeding innovation in ichthyosaurs compared with cetaceans, and through a much longer time span (more than 150 Myr).

Body size is an important trait with implications for energy use and ecology as well as generation time and evolutionary rates. Turritelline gastropods are widely distributed through geologic time and space, making them an excellent group for evaluating macroevolutionary patterns. To evaluate the pattern of body-size change in turritelline gastropods, we compiled a dataset of shell lengths of 316 species of turritelline gastropods spanning the Jurassic to Recent. Type specimens were almost always significantly larger than specimen distributions from the same species. We found that turritelline gastropod size was inversely correlated with latitude, a trend likely driven by the Neogene–Recent diversification of small-bodied Southern Hemisphere taxa. A time series model was applied to distinguish among three possible macroevolutionary patterns: unbiased random walk (no directional trend), biased random walk (directional trend), and stasis (no net change). We determined that turritelline gastropods have experienced stasis in body size throughout their evolutionary history, adding to the growing literature documenting directionless body-size trends in marine invertebrate clades. Stasis of geographically widespread clades may be the result of ecological variability across the environmental range occupied by the group or differential diversification into opposing environments. Turritelline life-history patterns, especially their reproductive strategy that combines a short life span and decline in growth rate around 1 year of age to reallocate energy to reproduction, might circumvent selection for longevity and larger size, while further decrease in minimum size is likely limited by feeding efficiency and anti-predatory defense. The expectation that species or clades should continue to evolve to occupy larger size classes conflicts with the evolutionary advantages of small size, which in turritelline gastropods include high generational turnover and larger population sizes that yield opportunities for genetic variance.