Compensation schemes can contribute to equitable sharing of benefits from wildlife. We describe a scheme that uses tourist fees for partial and conditional compensation of damage to livestock caused by wildlife on Kuku Group Ranch, Kenya. The explicit aim of the scheme is to decrease the killing of lions Panthera leo by Maasai on community land in the Amboseli–Tsavo ecosystem. During 2008–2013 the scheme spent a mean of USD 100,000 per year, and although livestock losses remained constant the killing of lions decreased significantly. The percentage of claims where part of the compensation was withheld as a penalty for negligent husbandry practices decreased significantly over time but remained high; poor herding in particular remains a problem. We weigh our results against arguments found in a literature survey; our findings support the negative arguments of moral hazard (i.e. the risk that compensation reduces the incentive to prevent damage) and post-project collapse. Despite these weaknesses the compensation scheme was effective, affordable and sustainable. We conclude that compensation is a useful conservation tool in situations where there is an imminent threat to biodiversity, and sustainable funding sources are available.

The bushmeat trade in ecosystems in South America other than those within the Amazon basin is presumed to be insignificant, as alternative sources of protein (e.g. beef, chicken, fish) are considered to be more readily available in non-moist forests. However, studies and confiscation reports from countries such as Colombia suggest that bushmeat is consumed in a variety of ecosystems, although the nature of market chains, particularly in urban areas, is still unknown. We studied the urban bushmeat trade in markets in the five main ecoregions in Colombia. We recorded a total of 85 species, the most frequently traded being the paca Cuniculus paca, red brocket deer Mazama americana, grey brocket deer Mazama gouazoubira, capybara Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris, armadillo Dasypus spp. and black agouti Dasyprocta fuliginosa. Most sales of wild meat occur through clandestine channels and involve a limited number of stakeholders. Bushmeat is a luxury product in urban areas of the Caribbean, the Pacific and the Andean regions. Further work is needed to quantify and monitor the volumes of bushmeat traded, comprehend motivations, explore ways of reducing threats, and engage with stakeholders to organize legal and sustainable use of bushmeat.

A gap between research and management exists in numerous natural resource fields. This can lead to management actions that are based on experience rather than evidence and may be less effective as a result. The gap may be partly attributable to research not being relevant, timely or accessible for managers. Editorial boards of peer-reviewed journals are responsible for determining the relevance of submitted manuscripts for a journal's readership. Limited representation of natural resource managers on editorial boards may make it more difficult for journals to identify the topics and findings of most relevance for management, thus contributing to the research–management gap. We quantified the representation of natural resource managers on the editorial boards of 79 conservation and applied natural resource journals. We found that 65% of editors were affiliated with universities, 13% with research institutions, 12% with government agencies and 3% with NGOs. On average, 9% of editors were affiliated with an agency or organization responsible for managing or regulating natural resources. The proportion of managers on editorial boards did not differ significantly between natural resource fields or with journal impact factor. Potential benefits of greater integration of managers into the research and publishing process include selection of research topics with greater relevance for management, clearer statements of the management implications of research studies, and more frequent publication of research evaluating the effectiveness of management interventions. Further study is needed to evaluate whether greater participation of managers in the editorial review process may contribute to achieving these benefits.

In Europe 37% of freshwater fish are threatened. However, conservation activity is less widespread for fish compared to other vertebrate groups. The Vulnerable European mudminnow Umbra krameri is a marshland fish endemic to the Carpathian Basin. Its range and population have declined significantly since the 1990s. The main threats to the species are habitat loss and the invasive Chinese sleeper Perccottus glenii. During 2008–2012 a species conservation programme was established to rescue broodstocks from threatened populations, breed them under controlled conditions, translocate both rescued fish and their laboratory-reared offspring to surrogate habitats, and finally reintroduce offspring to their original habitats. Broodstocks from three threatened habitats were bred in the laboratory and produced offspring appropriate for stocking. Six artificial ponds were created in the pilot study area according to the environmental needs of the species, four of which proved to be suitable surrogate habitats in which translocated fish survived and reproduced successfully. Populations in the original habitats were supplemented with fish from laboratory breeding and from the natural recruitment of surrogate habitats, with special care of the corresponding broodstocks. Future challenges include improving our knowledge about the ecological processes in which the European mudminnow participates, identifying the most threatened populations, habitats suitable for restoration and potential areas for creation of surrogate habitats, and enhancing induced propagation methodology.

Carnivores are valued by conservationists globally but protecting them can impose direct costs on rural, livestock-dependent communities. Financial incentives are increasingly used with the goal of increasing people's tolerance of predators, but the definition of tolerance has been vague and inconsistent. Empirical correlations between attitudinal and behavioural measures of tolerance imply that attitudes may be a valid proxy for behaviours. However, theoretical differences between the concepts suggest that attitudinal tolerance and behavioural intention to kill cats would have different underlying determinants. We surveyed 112 residents within a forest–farm mosaic in northern Belize inhabited by jaguars Panthera onca and four other species of wild cats. A conservation payment programme pays local landowners when camera traps record cat presence on their land. Results indicated that tolerance was associated with gender and participation in the camera-trapping programme, whereas intention to kill cats was associated with cultural group (Mennonites vs Mestizos), presence of children in the home and, to a lesser extent, tolerance. Neither dependent variable was significantly related to depredation losses or economic factors. Results suggest that monetary payments alone are unlikely to affect attitudes and behaviours towards carnivores. Payment programmes may be enhanced by accentuating non-monetary incentives, leveraging social norms and targeting specific groups with information about risks and benefits associated with carnivores. By empirically separating two concepts commonly conflated as ‘tolerance’ we clarify understanding of how social forces interact with financial incentives to shape people's relationships with predators.

Despite much effort to promote the conservation and recovery of threatened species, the extent of the current list of threatened vertebrates (> 7,600 species) underscores the need to develop novel communication and marketing tools to raise awareness and funding for their conservation. Although flagship species have been widely used in conservation marketing, the flagship role of extinct species has been largely overlooked and the status of lost species is rarely associated with the status of extant species facing a high risk of extinction. Some extinct species (e.g. the dodo Raphus cucullatus and the thylacine Thylacinus cynocephalus) are cultural and commercial icons and therefore familiar, and may appeal to the public as conservation flagships. We propose a wider use of extinct flagships to raise awareness for the conservation of threatened species by making a direct link between already extinct species and extant species at risk of extinction. We present examples of publicly recognized and iconic extinct species that could be used in marketing for the conservation of threatened species. These extinct species are familiar and may be readily linked to threatened species or species groups. We outline a roadmap for testing their appeal under the extinct flagship concept, through market research. If research identifies that a cognitive link is made between the fate of an extinct species (i.e. they went extinct from human causes) and what may happen to threatened species (i.e. they are at risk of extinction from human causes), extinct species may well have a wider role to play as conservation flagships.

Habitat loss is one of the main threats to wildlife, particularly large mammals. Estimating the potential distribution of threatened species to guide surveys and conservation is crucial, primarily because such species tend to exist in small fragmented populations. The Endangered huemul deer Hippocamelus bisulcus is endemic to the southern Andes of Chile and Argentina. Although the species occurs in the Valdivian Ecoregion, a hotspot for biodiversity, we have no information on its occupancy and potential distribution in this region. We built and compared species distribution models for huemul using the maximum entropy approach, using 258 presence records and sets of bioclimatic and geographical variables as predictors, with the objective of assessing the potential distribution of the species in the Valdivian Ecoregion. Annual temperature range and summer precipitation were the predictive variables with the greatest influence in the best-fitting model. Approximately 12,360 km2 of the study area was identified as suitable habitat for the huemul, of which 30% is included in the national protected area systems of Chile and Argentina. The map of potential distribution produced by our model will facilitate prioritization of future survey efforts in other remote and unexplored areas in which huemul have not been recorded since the 1980s but where there is a high probability of their occurrence.

Historically cormorants have come into direct conflict with fisheries because of their feeding habits. The Socotra cormorant Phalacrocorax nigrogularis is a regionally endemic seabird restricted to the Arabian Gulf and coastal Oman, and is categorized as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List. The species is perceived as being detrimental to local fisheries and is therefore persecuted. We studied the diet and estimated the number of Socotra cormorants breeding on Siniya Island, Umm Al Quwain, United Arab Emirates, to determine their impact on local fisheries. Regurgitated fish loads were collected during the breeding seasons of 2011–2012 and 2012–2013, and the biomass of fish consumed by the Socotra cormorant population was estimated. The diet comprised seven species of fish, with sailfin flying fish Parexocoetus mento and blue-stripe sardine Herklotsichthys quadrimaculatus dominating in 2011–2012 and anchovies (Encrasicholina spp.) dominating in 2012–2013. Biomass of fish loads was higher in 2011–2012 compared to 2012–2013, although mean biomass of fish loads did not differ. Dominant fish species in the cormorant's diet were either used as baitfish or were non-target species in the fisheries. The low overlap between the diet of the Socotra cormorant and the fish landed by the fisheries suggests that the cormorant's impact on fisheries is minimal. Conservation strategies to protect the birds and their feeding areas could safeguard populations of this species from further declines.

The Antillean manatee Trichechus manatus manatus is categorized as Endangered on the IUCN Red List but little is known about the status of the species in Cuba. Marine protected areas can contribute to manatee conservation in Cuba but the effectiveness of these areas may be jeopardized by a lack of information regarding appropriate design and management. We developed an index of manatee occurrence in the Fauna Refuge Ciénaga de Lanier, Isla de la Juventud, to assess patterns of manatee use in the reserve. We completed 26 field trips during November 2007–October 2013, with a total of 147 survey days. Manatee presence was detected on 47% of survey days and in 96% of field trips; 133 individuals were recorded in 93 sightings. The index of manatee occurrence varied between trips, suggesting a discontinuous use of the area. The mean group size was 1.4 individuals (range 1–5), and calves were observed in 13% of sightings. Observations of manatee behaviour, occurrence and habitat characteristics indicate the importance of the study area as a resting place, refuge and source of fresh water. We recommend that manatee protection be strengthened to avoid human-related mortality and to ensure that the habitats that provide critical resources are given special consideration in future management plans.

The Livingstone's fruit bat Pteropus livingstonii is endemic to the small islands of Anjouan and Mohéli in the Comoros archipelago, Indian Ocean. The species is under threat from anthropogenic pressure on the little that remains of its forest habitat, now restricted to the islands’ upper elevations and steepest slopes. We report the results of the most comprehensive survey of this species to date, and present recommendations for ongoing field conservation efforts and monitoring. Morning counts were conducted at roost sites in the wet and dry seasons during 2011–2013. Habitat structure around the roosting sites was characterized and roost numbers compared, to investigate the potential effect of habitat loss and degradation. We estimate the population to comprise c. 1,260 individuals distributed across 21 roosts on the two islands. All occupied roosting sites were restricted to a narrow altitudinal range, and roosting populations in agroforestry areas were smaller than those found in degraded and undisturbed forest. Only one of the 16 roosts on Anjouan was found in undisturbed, old-growth forest with no nearby signs of clearance for agriculture or landslides following tree-felling upslope. Following a suspected severe population decline as a result of widespread and long-term forest loss Livingstone's fruit bat has been recategorized as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List.

In the Caucasus the Endangered Persian leopard Panthera pardus saxicolor has been persecuted to the verge of extinction, primarily as a result of conflict with people over livestock predation. The socio-economic factors that influence this interaction have received little attention and the attitudes of local people towards leopards remain unknown. Here we assess the extent of cattle predation by leopards and how this influences people's attitudes towards leopards among village residents around the Dorfak No-Hunting Area, a priority reserve in the Iranian Caucasus. In a survey of 66 households, 48% of interviewees reported losing cattle to leopards during 2009–2011. A mean of c. 0.7 head of cattle per interviewed household was reportedly killed by leopards over the 3-year survey period. Cattle predation peaked during warm seasons, when most family members were busy with rice farming-related activities, thus leaving their cattle grazing unguarded in the forest. Regardless of the intensity of cattle predation or socio-economic status, 80% of respondents perceived leopards as a pest, with 45% of interviewees expressing support for either licensed hunting or culling of the Dorfak leopards. We recommend that the Iranian government considers the financial consequences of livestock loss for poor rural communities across the leopard's range. In addition, a combination of different livestock husbandry practices, with the direct involvement of local residents, is essential to ensure the long-term survival of the regional leopard population of the Caucasus.

Asian mammal species are facing unprecedented pressures from hunting and habitat conversion. Efforts to mitigate these threats often focus on charismatic large-bodied species, while many other species or even guilds receive less attention, particularly Asian wild pigs. To address this we developed a rapid questionnaire survey and administered it to relevant experts to identify the presence, population trends and conservation needs of Asia's 11 threatened wild pig species. The results highlighted geographical differences within species (e.g. the near collapse of bearded pig populations in Peninsular Malaysia yet their widespread presence on Borneo), and knowledge gaps for many endemic species of the Philippines, notably the Critically Endangered Visayan warty pig Sus cebifrons. To support field-based conservation projects, we identified 66 medium-to-large zoos in Asia, Europe and the USA that house Asian wild pigs and have applicable conservation funding schemes. Our rapid survey method, which yielded 170 wild pig records from across Asia, proved effective in filling many of the existing knowledge gaps, and may be widely applicable in assessing the status and needs of other non-flagship threatened species.

The identification and protection of Alliance for Zero Extinction sites at the national level is of great importance to safeguard biodiversity and achieve the targets of the Convention on Biological Diversity for 2020. Here we identify priority species and sites for the Brazilian flora. We evaluated the protection status of each site, taking into account whether or not it was located within a protected area, and the anthropogenic pressure on the site, using human density and gross domestic product as surrogates. We identified a total of 234 trigger species at 140 sites. Most of the sites are located in the Atlantic Forest and the Cerrado; only 21 are within protected areas. There was no relationship of human density and annual gross domestic product per capita with the level of site protection. The low proportion of Alliance for Zero Extinction sites protected shows that Brazil is lagging behind in global conservation efforts to protect such sites.

Population decline resulting from agricultural intensification led to contraction of the range of the cirl bunting Emberiza cirlus in the UK to a small area of south Devon. As part of the UK Biodiversity Action Plan for the species, a project to re-establish a population in suitable habitat in Cornwall was undertaken during 2006–2011, in which chicks were removed from the nest in Devon, hand-reared and then delayed-released. The survival of the birds to four time points in the year after release was analysed in relation to the effect of rearing factors, using a multivariable logistic regression model. Individuals with higher body weight at capture were more likely to survive to 1 January and 1 May in the year following release, and individuals released in June and July were more likely to survive than those released in August. Individuals released in 2006 and 2011 had a higher survival rate than those released during 2007–2010. Timing of capture, time spent at each stage in captivity, medication and the detection of parasites in the brood had no significant effect. Immunosuppressive disease, weather factors and predator activity may have led to some of the observed differences in survival. This analysis provides evidence with which to plan future translocation projects for cirl buntings and other passerine birds.

Assessing and updating the extinction risk and conservation status of species and populations is paramount to guide management strategies. Maintaining up-to-date and realistic geographical distribution maps of individual species is one aspect of this. We report an updated distribution for an Italian island endemic amphibian, the Sardinian newt Euproctus platycephalus, categorized as Endangered on the IUCN global and national Red Lists. The distribution of E. platycephalus was reassessed by means of visual surveys, questionnaires, interviews and scientific literature. The species was found over a geographical range comparable to that used for the IUCN assessment but we recorded a significantly larger number of populations (57 vs 14). There was no appreciable difference in the species’ Extent of Occurrence between 1972–1974 and 2010–2015. Area of Occupancy increased between past (1972–1974 and 1999–2000) and present (2010–2015) distribution records. Based on this updated distribution and considering that several new populations have been found, the distribution of the species may still be underestimated. Given the novel distribution data provided here and the need for new long-term demographic data, we recommend that the conservation status of E. platycephalus be reassessed. In the Italian national Red List a potential overstatement of extinction risk is evident for other amphibian species, possibly because the information used in their assessment is deficient. Considering that monitoring rare and elusive species is costly and time consuming we recommend more extensive use of multiple sources of information for Red List assessments.

The Endangered red-billed curassow Crax blumenbachii is endemic to the lowland Atlantic Forest of Brazil and is extinct across most of its range as a result of habitat loss and hunting pressure. Global population estimates are unreliable as the species has never been surveyed systematically. During March 2012–February 2013 we used line transects to estimate the density and size of one of the most important populations, in the Vale Nature Reserve. Using Distance we estimated a density of 1.3 individuals per km2; results stratified by sex indicated a male-skewed sex ratio. Data collected from motion-activated cameras confirmed that the population was male skewed but to a lesser degree than suggested by transect data. Sex-specific behavioural responses to the presence of an observer probably contributed to the difference between camera and transect data. Using the camera-derived sex ratios we corrected transect estimates to 1.6 individuals per km2 and a population of 325 individuals. Our systematic survey approach has revealed that Vale Nature Reserve has a larger population than previous estimates of the global population. We show that behavioural differences between the sexes in cryptic species can mislead population estimates, and we highlight the importance of motion-activated cameras as a tool for studying cryptic forest species.

Conflict between carnivores and livestock farmers affects human livelihoods and predator populations. Historically, successful mitigation of this conflict has been limited, sometimes because of a lack of participation among stakeholders to create and implement agreeable and effective solutions. Finding common ground between stakeholders can, however, be difficult, partly because of the range and intensity of values held. Using a novel combination of Q-methodology and the Delphi technique, I investigated whether a diverse range of stakeholders could agree on how to mitigate conflict between carnivores and livestock farmers in Namibia. A strong consensus was reached on using conservation education and husbandry training to reduce livestock depredation. Two narratives emerged: one group preferred non-lethal methods to manage the conflict, whereas a smaller group preferred lethal measures. This new decision-making exercise has potential to be applied to other conservation conflicts to assist with participatory decision making.

Payments for ecosystem services schemes are viewed as having the potential to achieve positive biodiversity and ecosystem service outcomes and social outcomes, and they have been widely studied since their development in the 1990s. We describe the state of payments for ecosystem services in Indonesia, where nine schemes were identified, four involving water and five involving carbon. We also assess the perceptions of stakeholders (donors, government, and non-government agencies) regarding the status of such schemes in Indonesia, and their views on what factors support or constrain their development. The main factors perceived to support payments for ecosystem services schemes were easily identifiable ecosystem services and service users, and the long-term support provided by individuals or institutions that facilitate the schemes, building on existing relationships between communities and these facilitating agencies. Stakeholders identified problems relating to regulation: the lack of regulation specifically in relation to payments for ecosystem services, but also overlap and uncertainties regarding regulations. Other constraining factors identified were the lack of recognition of environmental problems amongst potential buyers, and issues of rights and tenure for local communities. With so few operational programmes to date, covering a relatively small land area, and such constraints to further development, payments for ecosystem services schemes appear to have limited scope to supply ecosystem services successfully and sustainably at scale.