Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-hc48f Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-22T18:46:24.912Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Whole grains and human health

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 December 2007

Joanne Slavin
Joanne Slavin*
Affiliation:
Department of Food Science and Nutrition, University of Minnesota, 1334 Eckles Avenue, St Paul, MN 55108, USA
*
Corresponding author: Dr J. Slavin, fax +1 612 625 5272, email [email protected]
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

Epidemiological studies find that whole-grain intake is protective against cancer, CVD, diabetes, and obesity. Despite recommendations to consume three servings of whole grains daily, usual intake in Western countries is only about one serving/d. Whole grains are rich in nutrients and phytochemicals with known health benefits. Whole grains have high concentrations of dietary fibre, resistant starch, and oligosaccharides. Whole grains are rich in antioxidants including trace minerals and phenolic compounds and these compounds have been linked to disease prevention. Other protective compounds in whole grains include phytate, phyto-oestrogens such as lignan, plant stanols and sterols, and vitamins and minerals. Published whole-grain feeding studies report improvements in biomarkers with whole-grain consumption, such as weight loss, blood-lipid improvement, and antioxidant protection. Although it is difficult to separate the protective properties of whole grains from dietary fibre and other components, the disease protection seen from whole grains in prospective epidemiological studies far exceeds the protection from isolated nutrients and phytochemicals in whole grains.

Keywords

Whole grainsCancerCardiovascular diseaseDiabetes mellitusObesity
Type
Research Article
Information
Nutrition Research Reviews , Volume 17 , Issue 1 , June 2004 , pp. 99 - 110
Copyright
Copyright © The Author 2004

References

Adlercreutz, H, Fotsis, T, Bannwart, C, Hamalainen, E, Bloigu, A & Ollus, A (1986) Urinary estrogen profile determination in young Finnish vegetarian and omnivorous women. Journal of Steroid Biochemistry 24, 289–296.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Adlercreutz, H & Mazur, W (1997) Phyto-oestrogens and western diseases. Annals of Medicine 29, 95–120.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Adom, KK & Liu, RH (2002) Antioxidant activity of grains. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 50, 6182–6187.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anderson, JW (2002) Whole-grains intake and risk for coronary heart disease. In Whole-Grain Foods in Health and Disease, pp. 187–200 [Marquart, L, Slavin, JL and Fulcher, RG editors]. St Paul MN: Eagan Press.Google Scholar
Bjorck, I, Granfeldt, Y, Lilijeberg, H, Tovar, J & Asp, N (1994) Food properties affecting the digestion and absorption of carbohydrates. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 59S, 688S–705S.Google Scholar
Borriello, SP, Setchell, KD, Axelson, M & Lawson, AM (1985) Production and metabolism of lignans by the human faecal flora. Journal of Applied Bacteriology 58, 37–43.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brown, L, Rosner, B, Willett, WW & Sacks, FM (1999) Cholesterol-lowering effects of dietary fiber: a meta-analysis. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 69, 30–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bruce, B, Spiller, GA, Klevay, LM & Gallagher, SK (2000) A diet high in whole and unrefined foods favorably alters lipids, antioxidant defenses, and colon function. Journal of the American College of Nutrition 19, 61–67.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chatenoud, L, Tavani, A, La Vecchia, C, Jacobs, DR, Negri, E, Levi, F & Franceschi, S (1998) Whole-grain food intake and cancer risk. International Journal of Cancer 77, 24–28.3.0.CO;2-1>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clark, LC, Combs, CF, Turnbull, BW, Slate, EH, Chalker, DK, Chow, J, Davis, LS, Glover, RA, Graham, GF, Gross, EG, Krongrad, A, Lesher, JL, Park, HK, Sanders, BB, Smith, CL & Taylor, JR (1996) Effects of selenium supplementation for cancer prevention in patients with carcinoma of the skin. A randomized controlled trial. Nutritional Prevention of Cancer Study Group. Journal of the American Medical Association 276, 1957–1963.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cleveland, LE, Moshfegh, A, Albertson, A & Goldman, J (2000) Dietary intake of whole grains. Journal of the American College of Nutrition 19, 331S–338S.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Franz, MJ, Bantle, JP, Beebe, CA, Brunzell, JD, Chiasson, JL, Garg, A, Holzmeister, LA, Hoogwerf, B & Mayer-Davis, E (2002) Evidence-based nutrition principles and recommendations for the treatment and prevention of diabetes and related complications. Diabetes Care 25, 148–198.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fulcher, RG & Rooney Duke, TK (2002) Whole-grain structure and organization: implications for nutritionists and processors. In Whole-Grain Foods in Health and Disease, pp. 9–45 [Marquart, L, Slavin, JL and Fulcher, RG editors]. St Paul MN: Eagan Press.Google Scholar
Fung, TT, Hu, FB, Pereira, MA, Liu, S, Stampfer, MJ, Colditz, GA & Willett, WC (2002) Whole-grain intake and the risk of type 2 diabetes: a prospective study in men. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 76, 535–540.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gerhardt, AL & Gallo, NB (1998) Full-fat rice bran and oat bran similarly reduce hypercholesterolemia in humans. Journal of Nutrition 128, 865–869.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gibson, GR, Beatty, ER, Wang, X & Cummings, JH (1995) Selective stimulation of bifidobacteria in the human colon by oligofructose and inulin. Gastroenterology 108, 975–982.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Giovannucci, E (1995) Insulin and colon cancer. Cancer Causes and Contro 6, 164–179.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Granfeldt, Y, Hagander, B & Bjorck, I (1995) Metabolic responses to starch in oat and wheat products. On the importance of food structure, incomplete gelatinization or presence of viscous dietary fibre. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 49, 189–199.Google ScholarPubMed
Hallikainen, MA, Sarkkinen, ES & Uusitupa, MIJ (2000) Plant stanols esters affect serum cholesterol concentrations of hypercholesterolemic men and women in a dose-dependent manner. Journal of Nutrition 130, 767–776.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hara, H, Haga, S, Aoyama, Y & Kiriyama, S (1999) Short-chain fatty acids suppress cholesterol synthesis in rat liver and intestine. Journal of Nutrition 129, 942–948.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harnack, L, Walters, S & Jacobs, JR (2003) Dietary intake and food sources of whole grains among US children and adolescents: data from the 1994–1996 continuing survey of food intakes by individuals. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 103, 1015–1019.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heaton, KW, Marcus, SN, Emmett, PM & Bolton, CH (1988) Particle size of wheat, maize, and oat test meals: effects on plasma glucose and insulin responses and on the rate of starch digestion in vitro. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 47, 675–682.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hu, FB, Manson, JE, Liu, S, Hunter, D, Colditz, GA, Michels, KB, Speizer, FE & Giovannucci, E (1999) Prospective study of adult onset diabetes mellitus (type 2) and risk of colorectal cancer in women. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 91, 542–547.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jacobs, DR, Marquart, L, Slavin, JL & Kushi, LH (1998 a) Whole-grain intake and cancer: an expanded review and meta-analysis. Nutrition and Cancer 30, 85–96.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jacobs, DR, Meyer, KA, Kushi, LH & Folsom, AR (1998 b) Whole-grain intake may reduce the risk of ischemic heart disease death in postmenopausal women: The Iowa Women's Health Study. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 68, 248–257.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jacobs, DR, Meyer, KA, Kushi, LH & Folsom, AR (1999) Is whole-grain intake associated with reduced total and cause-specific death rates in older women? The Iowa Women's Health Study. American Journal of Public Health 89, 322–329.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jacobs, DR, Meyer, HE & Solvoll, K (2001) Reduced mortality among whole grain bread eaters in men and women in the Norwegian County Study. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 55, 137–143.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jacobs, DR, Pereira, MA, Meyer, KA & Kushi, LH (2000) Fiber from whole grains, but not refined grains, is inversely associated with all cause mortality in older women: The Iowa Women's Health Study. Journal of the American College of Nutrition 19, 326S–330S.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jacobs, DR, Pereira, MA, Stumpf, K, Pins, JJ & Adlercreutz, H (2002) Whole grain food intake elevates serum enterolactone. British Journal of Nutrition 88, 111–116.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jang, Y, Lee, JH, Kim, OY, Park, HY & Lee, SY (2001) Consumption of whole grain and legume powder reduces insulin demand, lipid peroxidation, and plasma homocysteine concentrations in patients with coronary artery disease: randomized controlled clinical trial. Artersclerosis, Thrombosis and Vascular Biology 21, 2065–2071.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jarvi, A, Karlstrom, B, Granfeldt, YE, Bjorck, I & Vessby, B (1995) The influence of food structure on postprandial metabolism in patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 61, 837–842.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jenkins, DJ, Wesson, V, Wolever, TM, Jenkins, AL, Kalmusky, J, Guidici, S, Csima, A, Josse, RG & Wong, GS (1988) Wholemeal versus wholegrain breads: proportion of whole or cracked grain and the glycaemic response. British Medical Journal 297, 958–960.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jenkins, DJA, Wolever, TMS, Jenkins, AL, Giordano, C, Giudici, S, Thompson, LU, Kalmusky, J, Josse, RG & Wong, GS (1986) Low glycemic response to traditionally processed wheat and rye products: bulgur and pumpernickel bread. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 43, 516–520.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Juntunen, KS, Laaksonen, DE, Poutanen, KS, Niskanen, LK & Mykkanen, HM (2003) High-fiber rye bread and insulin secretion and sensitivity in healthy postmenopausal women. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 77, 385–391.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Juntunen, KS, Niskanen, LK, Liukkonen, KH, Poutanen, KS, Holst, JJ & Hykkanen, HM (2002) Postprandial glucose, insulin, and incretin responses to grain products in healthy subjects. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 75, 254–262.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kantor, LS, Variyam, JN, Allshouse, JE, Putnam, JJ & Lin, B (2002) Dietary intake of whole grains: a challenge for consumers. In Whole-Grain Foods in Health and Disease, pp. 301–325 [Marquart, L, Slavin, JL and Fulcher, RG editors]. St Paul MN: Eagan Press.Google Scholar
Kasum, CM, Jacobs, DR, Nicodemus, K & Folsom, AR (2002) Dietary risk factors for upper aerodigestive tract cancers. International Journal of Cancer 99, 267–272.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kasum, CM, Nicodemus, K, Harnack, LJ, Jacobs, DR & Folsom, AR (2001) Whole grain intake and incident endometrial cancer: The Iowa Women's Health Study. Nutrition and Cancer 39, 180–186.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Katz, DL, Nawaz, H, Boukhalil, J, Chan, W, Ahmadi, R, Giannamore, V & Sarrel, PM (2001) Effects of oat and wheat cereals on endothelial responses. Preventive Medicine 33, 476–484.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kilkkinen, A, Stumpf, K, Pietinen, P, Valsta, LM, Tapanainen, H & Adlercreutz, H (2001) Determinants of serum enterolactone concentration. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 73, 1094–1100.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kilkkinen, A, Valsta, LM, Virtamo, J, Stumpf, K, Adlercreutz, H & Pietinen, P (2003) Intake of lignans is associated with serum enterolactone concentration in Finnish men and women. Journal of Nutrition 133, 1830–1833.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kroon, PA, Faulds, CB, Ryden, P, Robertson, JA & Williamson, G (1997) Release of covalently bound ferulic acid from fiber in the human colon. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 45, 661–667.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lang, R & Jebb, SA (2003) Who consumes whole grains, and how much? Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 62, 123–127.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Liu, S (2003) Whole-grain foods, dietary fiber, and type 2 diabetes: searching for a kernel of truth. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 77, 527–529.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Liu, S, Manson, JE, Stampfer, MJ, Hu, FB, Giovannucci, E, Colditz, GA, Hennekens, CH & Willett, WC (2000) A prospective study of whole grain intake and risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus in U.S. women. American Journal of Public Health 90, 1409–1415.Google Scholar
Liu, S, Sesso, HD, Manson, JE, Willett, WC & Buring, JE (2003 a) Is intake of breakfast cereals related to total and cause specific mortality in men? American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 77, 594–599.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Liu, S, Willett, WC, Manson, JE, Hu, FB, Rosner, B & Colditz, G (2003 b) Relation between changes in intakes of dietary fiber and grain products and changes in weight and development of obesity among middle-aged women. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 78, 920–927.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Liu, SM, Stampfer, MJ, Hu, FB, Giovannucci, E, Rimm, E, Manson, JE, Hennekens, CH & Willett, WC (1999) Whole-grain consumption and risk of coronary heart disease: results from the Nurse's Health Study. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 70, 412–429.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Liukkonen, K-H, Katina, K, Wilhelmsson, A, Myllkmäki, O, Lampi, A-M, Kariluoto, S, Piironen, V, Heinonen, S-M, Nurmi, T, Adlercreutz, H, Peltoketo, A, Pihlava, J-M, Hietaniemi, V & Poutanen, K (2003) Process-induced changes on bioactive compounds in wholegrain rye. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 62, 117–122.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ludwig, DS, Pereira, MA, Kroenke, CH, Hilner, JE, Van Horn, L, Slattery, ML & Jacobs, DR (1999) Dietary fiber, weight gain, and cardiovascular disease risk factors in young adults. Journal of the American Medical Association 282, 1539–1546.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McIntosh, GH, Noakes, M, Royle, PJ & Foster, PR (2003) Whole-grain rye and wheat foods and markers of bowel health in overweight middle-aged men. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 77, 967–974.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McIntyre, A, Vincent, RM, Perkins, AC & Spiller, RC (1997) Effect of bran, ispaghula, and inert plastic particles on gastric emptying and small bowel transit in humans: the role of physical factors. Gut 40, 223–227.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McKeown, NM, Meigs, JB, Liu, S, Wilson, PWF & Jacques, PF (2002) Whole-grain intake is favorably associated with metabolic risk factors for type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease in the Framingham Offspring Study. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 76, 390–398.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McPherson, R & Spiller, GA (1995) Effects of dietary fatty acids and cholesterol on cardiovascular disease risk factors in man. In Handbook of Lipids in Human Nutrition, pp. 41–49 [Spiller, GA editor]. Boca Raton FL: CRC Press.Google Scholar
Marlett, JA, McBurney, MI & Slavin, JL (2002) Position of the American Dietetic Association: health implications of dietary fiber. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 102, 993–1000.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marquart, L, Wiemer, KL, Jones, JM & Jacob, B (2003) Whole grain health claims in the USA and other efforts to increase whole-grain consumption. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 62, 151–160.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meyer, KA, Kushi, LH, Jacobs, DR, Slavin, J, Sellers, TA & Folsom, AR (2000) Carbohydrates, dietary fiber, and incident type 2 diabetes in older women. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 71, 921–930.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miller, G (2001) Whole grain, fiber and antioxidants. In CRC Handbook of Dietary Fiber, pp. 453–460 [Spiller, GA editor]. Boca Raton FL: CRC Press.Google Scholar
Miller, G, Prakash, A & Decker, E (2002) Whole-grain micronutrients. In Whole-Grain Foods in Health and Disease, pp. 243–258 [Marquart, L, Slavin, JL and Fulcher, RG editors]. St Paul MN: Eagan Press.Google Scholar
Montonen, J, Neckt, P, Jarvinen, R, Aromaa, A & Reunanen, A (2003) Whole-grain and fiber intake and the incidence of type 2 diabetes. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 77, 622–629.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morris, J, Marr, J & Clayton, D (1977) Diet and heart: a postscript. British Medical Journal ii, 1307–1314.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Murtaugh, MA, Jacobs, DR, Jacob, B, Steffen, LM & Marquart, L (2003) Epidemiological support for the protection of whole grains against diabetes. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 62, 143–149.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Newby, PK, Muller, D, Hallfrisch, J, Quao, N, Andres, R & Tucker, K (2003) Dietary patterns and changes in body mass index and waist circumference in adults. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 77, 1417–1425.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pereira, MA (2002) Whole grain consumption and body weight regulation. In Whole-Grain Foods in Health and Disease, pp. 233–242 [Marquart, L, Slavin, JL and Fulcher, RG editors]. St Paul MN: Eagan Press.Google Scholar
Pereira, MA, Jacobs, DR, Pins, JJ, Raatz, SK, Gross, MD, Slavin, JL & Seaquist, ER (2002) Effect of whole grains on insulin sensitivity in overweight hyperinsulinemic adults. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 75, 848–855.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pereira, MA, Jacobs, DR, Slattery, ML, Ruth, KJ, Van Horn, L, Hilner, JE & Kushi, LH (1998) The association of whole grain intake and fasting insulin in a biracial cohort of young adults: the CARDIA study. CVD Prevention 1, 231–242.Google Scholar
Pietinen, P, Rimm, EB, Korhonen, P, Hartman, AM, Willett, WC, Albanes, D & Virtamo, J (1996) Intake of dietary fiber and risk of coronary heart disease in a cohort of Finnish men. The Alpha-Tocopherol, Beta-Carotene Cancer Prevention Study. Circulation 94, 2720–2727.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pins, JJ, Geleva, D, Leemam, K, Frazer, C, O'Connor, PJ & Cherney, LM (2002) Do whole-grain oat cereals reduce the need for antihypertensive medications and improve blood pressure control? Journal of Family Practice 51, 353–359.Google ScholarPubMed
Richardson, DP (2003) Whole grain health claims in Europe. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 62, 161–169.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rimm, EB, Ascherio, A, Giovannucci, E, Spiegelman, D, Stampfer, MJ & Willett, WC (1996) Vegetable, fruit and cereal fiber intake and risk of coronary heart disease among men. Journal of the American Medical Association 275, 447–451.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Salmeron, J, Ascherio, A, Rimm, EB, Colditz, GA, Spiegelman, D, Jenkins, DJ, Stampfer, MJ, Wing, AL & Willett, WC (1997 a) Dietary fiber, glycemic load, and risk of NIDDM in men. Diabetes Care 20, 545–550.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Salmeron, J, Manson, JE, Stampfer, MJ, Colditz, GA, Wing, AL & Willett, WC (1997 b) Dietary fiber, glycemic load, and risk of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus in women. Journal of the American Medical Association 277, 472–477.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schoen, RE, Tangen, CM, Kuller, LH, Burke, GL, Cushman, M, Tracy, RP, Dobs, A & Savage, PJ (1999) Increased blood glucose and insulin, body size and incident colorectal cancer. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 91, 1147–1154.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shock, N, Greulich, R, Andres, R, Arenberg, D, Costa, PT, Lakatta, EG & Tobin, JD (1984) Normal Human Aging: the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging. Washington, DC: National Institute of Health Government Printing Office.Google Scholar
Slavin, JL (2003) Why whole grains are protective: biological mechanisms. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 62, 129–134.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Slavin, JL, Jacobs, D & Marquart, L (2001 a) Grain processing and nutrition. Critical Reviews in Biotechnology 21, 49–66.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Slavin, JL, Jacobs, D, Marquart, L & Wiemer, K (2001 b) The role of whole grains in disease prevention. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 101, 780–785.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Slavin, JL, Martini, MC, Jacobs, DR & Marquart, L (1999) Plausible mechanisms for the protectiveness of whole grains. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 70, 459S–463S.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Spiller, GA (2002) Whole grains, whole wheat, and white flours in history. In Whole-Grain Foods in Health and Disease, pp. 1–7 [Marquart, L, Slavin, JL and Fulcher, RG editors]. St Paul MN: Eagan Press.Google Scholar
Terry, P, Lagergren, J, Ye, W, Wolk, A & Nyren, O (2001) Inverse association between intake of cereal fiber and risk of gastric cardia cancer. Gastroenterology 120, 387–391.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thompson, LU, Seidl, MM, Rickard, SE, Orcheson, LJ & Fong, HH (1996) Antitumorigenic effect of a mammalian lignan precursor from flaxseed. Nutrition and Cancer 26, 159–165.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Trowell, H (1972) Ischemic heart disease and dietary fiber. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 25, 926–932.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Truswell, AS (2002) Cereal grains and coronary heart disease. European Journal of Clinical Nut 56, 1–14.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
United States Department of Agriculture (1997) Pyramid Servings Data – Results from USDA's 1994–1996 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals Riverdale CA: Food Surveys Research Group.Google Scholar
United States Department of Agriculture (2000) Dietary Guidelines for Americans. Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee 2000. www.ars.usda.gov/dgac/2kdiet.pdfGoogle Scholar
Van Dam, RM, Grievink, L, Ocke, MC & Feskens, EJM (2003) Patterns of food consumption and risk factors for cardiovascular disease in the general Dutch population. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 77, 1156–1163.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Van Dam, RM, Rimm, EB, Willett, WC, Stampfer, MJ & Hu, FB (2002) Dietary patterns and risk for type 2 diabetes mellitus in US men. Annals in Internal Medicine 136, 201–209.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vanharanta, M, Voutilainen, S, Rissanen, TH, Adlercreutz, H & Salonen, JT (2003) Risk of cardiovascular disease-related and all-cause death according to serum concentrations of enterolactone. Kuopio Ischaemic Heart Disease Risk Factor Study. Archives of Internal Medicine 163, 1099–1104.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Van Loo, J, Coussement, P, De Leenheer, L, Hoebregs, H & Smits, G (1995) On the presence of inulin and oligofructose as natural ingredients in the western diet. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 35, 525–552.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wrick, K, Robertson, JB & Van Soest, PJ (1983) The influence of dietary fiber source on human intestinal transit and stool output. Journal of Nutrition 113, 1464–1479.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yankah, VV & Jones, PJH (2001) Phytosterols and health implications – efficacy and nutritional aspects. Inform 12, 899–903.Google Scholar