Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-ndw9j Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-07T08:31:31.273Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Parameters controlling the glycaemic response to breads

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 December 2007

Anthony Fardet*
Affiliation:
Unité des Maladies Métaboliques et Micronutriments, U3M, INRA, Centre de Recherche de Clermont-Ferrand/Theix, 63122 Saint-Genès-Champanelle, France
Fanny Leenhardt
Affiliation:
Unité des Maladies Métaboliques et Micronutriments, U3M, INRA, Centre de Recherche de Clermont-Ferrand/Theix, 63122 Saint-Genès-Champanelle, France
Delphine Lioger
Affiliation:
Unité des Maladies Métaboliques et Micronutriments, U3M, INRA, Centre de Recherche de Clermont-Ferrand/Theix, 63122 Saint-Genès-Champanelle, France
Augustin Scalbert
Affiliation:
Unité des Maladies Métaboliques et Micronutriments, U3M, INRA, Centre de Recherche de Clermont-Ferrand/Theix, 63122 Saint-Genès-Champanelle, France
Christian Rémésy
Affiliation:
Unité des Maladies Métaboliques et Micronutriments, U3M, INRA, Centre de Recherche de Clermont-Ferrand/Theix, 63122 Saint-Genès-Champanelle, France
*
*Corresponding author: Dr Anthony Fardet, fax +33 47 3 62 46 38, email [email protected]
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

Bread is one of the most widely consumed staple foods worldwide. White-wheat bread, largely consumed in France, is made from highly refined flour, which leads to a low nutrient density. Due to a highly porous structure and gelatinised starch, it is easily broken down during digestion, leading to a rapid increase of glucose released into the bloodstream. Low glycaemic responses are considered favourable to health, especially against a background of diabetes. Literature reports show that selection of raw material is an essential factor in decreasing the glycaemic index (GI) of white bread. There are two means of decreasing the rate of starch degradation: either (i) slowing gastric emptying rate and/or glucose diffusion–absorption through the intestinal mucosa, which can be achieved by incorporating soluble fibre or organic acid in bread, or (ii) limiting starch accessibility to α-amylase by using high-amylose cereal varieties and/or incorporating intact cereal grains. Studies on cereal products show that preservation of the food structure during digestion seems to be a more important GI-reducing factor than the degree of starch crystallinity or the presence of soluble fibre. Thus, we should look to produce bread with a more compact food structure or higher density, which is the case in leavened wholewheat bread or bread with intact cereal grains. The baking process should also be improved to achieve this goal, by using, for example, a reduced kneading time or less yeast than usual.

Type
Research Article
Copyright
Copyright © The Authors 2006

References

Adam, A (2002) Qualité nutritionnelle et effets métaboliques des farines de blé et du pain (Nutritional quality and metabolic effects of wheat flours and bread). PhD Thesis, Université d'Auvergne et Université Blaise Pascal.Google Scholar
Adam, A, Leenhardt, F, Lopez, HW, Leuillet, M & Rémésy, C (2003) Les possibilités d'amélioration de la valeur nutritionnelle du pain (Possibilities for improvement of the nutritional value of bread). Cahiers de Nutrition et Diététique 38, 316322.Google Scholar
Akerberg, A, Liljeberg, H & Bjorck, I (1998) Effects of amylose/amylopectin ratio and baking conditions on resistant starch formation and glycaemic indices. Journal of Cereal Science 28, 7180.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berti, C, Riso, P, Monti, LD & Porrini, M (2004) In vitro starch digestibility and in vivo glucose response of gluten-free foods and their gluten counterparts. European Journal of Nutrition 43, 198204.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Björck, I & Elmstahl, HL (2003) The glycaemic index: importance of dietary fibre and other food properties. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 62, 201206.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Björck, I, Liljeberg, H & Ostman, E (2000) Low glycaemic-index foods. British Journal of Nutrition 83, Suppl. 1, S149–S155.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bornet, FR, Costagliola, D, Rizkalla, SW, Blayo, A, Fontvieille, AM, Haardt, MJ, Letanoux, M, Tchobroutsky, G & Slama, G (1987) Insulinemic and glycemic indexes of six starch-rich foods taken alone and in a mixed meal by type 2 diabetics. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 45, 588595.Google Scholar
Brennan, CS, Blake, DE, Ellis, PR & Schofield, JD (1996) Effects of guar galactomannan on wheat bread microstructure and on the in vitro and in vivo digestibility of starch in bread. Journal of Cereal Science 24, 151160.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cavallero, A, Empilli, S, Brighenti, F & Stanca, A (2002) High (1→3, 1→4)-β-glucan barley fractions in bread making and their effects on human glycemic response. Journal of Cereal Science 36, 5966.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Darwiche, G, Ostman, EM, Liljeberg, HG, Kallinen, N, Bjorgell, O, Björck, IM & Almer, LO (2001) Measurements of the gastric emptying rate by use of ultrasonography: studies in humans using bread with added sodium propionate. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 74, 254258.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Flourie, B, Vidon, N, Florent, CH & Bernier, JJ (1984) Effect of pectin on jejunal glucose absorption and unstirred layer thickness in normal man. Gut 25, 936941.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Food and Agriculture Organization & World Health Organization (1997) Carbohydrates in Human Nutrition, Report of a joint FAO/WHO Expert Consultation, Rome, 14–18 April 1997. Rome: FAO/WHO.Google Scholar
Foster-Powell, K, Holt, SH & Brand-Miller, JC (2002) International table of glycemic index and glycemic load values: 2002. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 76, 556.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Glore, SR, Van Treeck, D, Knehans, AW & Guild, M (1994) Soluble fiber and serum lipids: a literature review. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 94, 425436.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Granfeldt, Y, Björck, I & Hagander, B (1991) On the importance of processing conditions, product thickness and egg addition for the glycaemic and hormonal responses to pasta: a comparison with bread made from ‘pasta ingredients’. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 45, 489499.Google Scholar
Granfeldt, Y, Drews, A & Björck, I (1995 a) Arepas made from high amylose corn flour produce favorably low glucose and insulin responses in healthy humans. Journal of Nutrition 125, 459465.Google ScholarPubMed
Granfeldt, Y, Hagander, B & Björck, I (1995 b) Metabolic responses to starch in oat and wheat products. On the importance of food structure, incomplete gelatinization or presence of viscous dietary fibre. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 49, 189199.Google ScholarPubMed
Hoebler, C, Karinthi, A, Chiron, H, Champ, M & Barry, JL (1999) Bioavailability of starch in bread rich in amylose: metabolic responses in healthy subjects and starch structure. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 53, 360366.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holm, J & Björck, I (1992) Bioavailability of starch in various wheat-based bread products: evaluation of metabolic responses in healthy subjects and rate and extent of in vitro starch digestion. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 55, 420429.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jenkins, DJ, Ghafari, H, Wolever, TM, Taylor, RH, Jenkins, AL, Barker, HM, Fielden, H & Bowling, AC (1981) Glycemic index of foods: a physiological basis for carbohydrate exchange. Diabetologia 34, 362366.Google Scholar
Jenkins, DJ, Wolever, TM & Jenkins, AL (1987) Glycemic index of processed wheat products. Diabetes Care 46, 631635.Google Scholar
Jenkins, DJ, Wolever, TM, Jenkins, AL, Giordano, C, Giudici, S, Thompson, LU, Kalmusky, J, Josse, RG & Wong, GS (1986) Low glycemic response to traditionally processed wheat and rye products: bulgur and pumpernickel bread. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 43, 516520.Google ScholarPubMed
Jenkins, DJ, Wolever, TM, Jenkins, AL, Lee, R, Wong, GS & Josse, R (1983) Glycemic response to wheat products: reduced response to pasta but no effect of fiber. Diabetes Care 6, 155159.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jenkins, DJ, Wolever, TM, Nineham, R, Taylor, R, Metz, GL, Bacon, S & Hockaday, TD (1978) Guar crispbread in the diabetic diet. British Medical Journal 2, 17441746.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johnson, IT & Gee, JM (1981) Effect of gel-forming gums on the intestinal unstirred layer and sugar transport in vitro. Gut 22, 398403.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Juntunen, KS, Niskanen, LK, Liukkonen, KH, Poutanen, KS, Holst, JJ & Mykkanen, HM (2002) Postprandial glucose, insulin, and incretin responses to grain products in healthy subjects. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 75, 254262.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Karinthi, (1995) Degradations physiques et chimiques subies par des aliments céréaliers are cours des digestions buccales et gastriques (Chemical and physical degradations undergone by cereal products during buccogastric digestion). PhD Thesis, Institut National Agronomique Paris-Grignon (INAP-G) & institut de la Recherche Agronomique (INRA) de Nantes, France.Google Scholar
Leinonen, K, Liukkonen, K, Poutanen, K, Uusitupa, M & Mykkanen, H (1999) Rye bread decreases postprandial insulin response but does not alter glucose response in healthy Finnish subjects. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 53, 262267.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Liljeberg, H & Björck, I (1994) Bioavailability of starch in bread products. Postprandial glucose and insulin responses in healthy subjects and in vitro resistant starch content. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 48, 151163.Google ScholarPubMed
Liljeberg, H & Björck, I (1998) Delayed gastric emptying rate may explain improved glycaemia in healthy subjects to a starchy meal with added vinegar. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 52, 368371.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Liljeberg, H, Granfeldt, Y & Björck, I (1992) Metabolic responses to starch in bread containing intact kernels versus milled flour. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 46, 561575.Google ScholarPubMed
Liljeberg, HG & Björck, IM (1996) Delayed gastric emptying rate as a potential mechanism for lowered glycemia after eating sourdough bread: studies in humans and rats using test products with added organic acids or an organic salt. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 64, 886893.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Liljeberg, HG, Granfeldt, YE & Björck, IM (1996) Products based on a high fiber barley genotype, but not on common barley or oats, lower postprandial glucose and insulin responses in healthy humans. Journal of Nutrition 126, 458466.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Liljeberg, HG, Lonner, CH & Björck, IM (1995) Sourdough fermentation or addition of organic acids or corresponding salts to bread improves nutritional properties of starch in healthy humans. Journal of Nutrition 125, 15031511.Google ScholarPubMed
Lu, ZX, Walker, KZ, Muir, JG, Mascara, T & O'Dea, K (2000) Arabinoxylan fiber, a byproduct of wheat flour processing, reduces the postprandial glucose response in normoglycemic subjects. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 71, 11231128.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lu, ZX, Walker, KZ, Muir, JG & O'Dea, K (2004) Arabinoxylan fibre improves metabolic control in people with type II diabetes. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 58, 621628.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lund, EK, Gee, JM, Brown, JC, Wood, PJ & Johnson, IT (1989) Effect of oat gum on the physical properties of the gastrointestinal contents and on the uptake of d -galactose and cholesterol by rat small intestine in vitro. British Journal of Nutrition 62, 91101.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Muir, JG, Birkett, A, Brown, I, Jones, G & O'Dea, K (1995) Food processing and maize variety affects amounts of starch escaping digestion in the small intestine. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 61, 8289.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ostman, EM, Frid, AH, Groop, LC & Björck, IM (2006) A dietary exchange of common bread for tailored bread of low glycaemic index and rich in dietary fibre improved insulin economy in young women with impaired glucose tolerance. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 60, 334341.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ostman, EM, Liljeberg Elmstahl, HG & Björck, IM (2002 a) Barley bread containing lactic acid improves glucose tolerance at a subsequent meal in healthy men and women. Journal of Nutrition 132, 11731175.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ostman, EM, Nilsson, M, Liljeberg Elmstahl, HGM, Molin, G & Björck, IME (2002 b) On the effect of lactic acid on blood glucose and insulin responses to cereal products: mechanistic studies in healthy subjects and in vitro. Journal of Cereal Science 36, 339346.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pick, ME, Hawrysh, ZJ, Gee, MI, Toth, E, Garg, ML & Hardin, RT (1996) Oat bran concentrate bread products improve long-term control of diabetes: a pilot study. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 96, 12541261.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rizkalla, SW, Laromiguiere, M, Bruzzo, F, Boillot, J & Slama, G (2004) Détermination de l'index glycémique et insulinémique de pains français chez l'homme sain et diabétique (Determination of glycemic and insulinemic indexes of French bread in healthy and diabetic men). Industrie des Céréales 139, 1114.Google Scholar
Wood, PJ, Braate, JT, Scott, FW, Riedel, KD, Wolynetz, MS & Collin, MW (1994) Effect of dose and modification of viscous properties of oat gum on plasma glucose and insulin following an oral glucose load. British Journal of Nutrition 72, 731743.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Würsch, P & Pi-Sunyer, FX (1997) The role of viscous soluble fiber in the metabolic control of diabetes. A review with special emphasis on cereals rich in beta-glucan. Diabetes Care 20, 17741780.CrossRefGoogle Scholar