Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-t8hqh Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-23T05:06:28.518Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The effects of diet on circulating sex hormone levels in men

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 December 2007

Naomi E Allen  and
Timothy J Key
Naomi E Allen*
Affiliation:
Imperial Cancer Research Fund Cancer Epidemiology Unit, Gibson Building, Radcliffe Infirmary, Woodstock Road, Oxford OX2 6HE, UK
Timothy J Key
Affiliation:
Imperial Cancer Research Fund Cancer Epidemiology Unit, Gibson Building, Radcliffe Infirmary, Woodstock Road, Oxford OX2 6HE, UK
*
*Corresponding author: Naomi Allen, fax +44 1865301545, email [email protected]
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

There is considerable epidemiological evidence that a Western-style diet may increase the risk of certain hormone-dependent conditions in men via its effects on hormone metabolism. Experimental evidence also suggests that dietary factors may exert subtle effects on hormone metabolism. Here we review the clinical and epidemiological evidence that diet is associated with circulating sex hormone levels in men. In comparison with factors such as age and BMI, nutrients do not appear to be strong determinants of sex hormone levels. Dietary intervention studies have not shown that a change in dietary fat and/or dietary fibre intake is associated with changes in circulating sex hormone concentrations over the short term. The data on the effects of dietary phyto-oestrogens on sex hormone levels in men are too limited for conclusions to be drawn. Observational studies between men from different dietary groups have shown that a vegan diet is associated with small but significant increases in sex-hormone-binding globulin and testosterone concentrations in comparison with meat-eaters. However, these studies have not demonstrated that variations in dietary composition have any long-term important effects on circulating bioavailable sex hormone levels in men. This lack of effect may be partly explained by the body's negative feedback mechanism, which balances out small changes in androgen metabolism in order to maintain a constant level of circulating bioavailable androgens. It appears, therefore, that future studies should look for dietary effects on the feedback mechanism itself, or on the metabolism of androgens within the target tissues.

Keywords

DietSex hormonesMen
Type
Research Article
Information
Nutrition Research Reviews , Volume 13 , Issue 2 , December 2000 , pp. 159 - 184
Copyright
Copyright © CABI Publishing 2000

References

Adlercreutz, H, Höckerstedt, K, Bannwart, C, Bloigu, S, Hämäläinen, E, Fotsis, T & Ollus, A (1987) Effect of dietary components, including lignans and phytoestrogens on enterohepatic circulation and liver metabolism of estrogens and on sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG). Journal of Steroid Biochemistry 27, 1135–1144.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Adlercreutz, H, Markkanen, H, & Watanabe, S (1993) Plasma concentrations of phytoestrogens in Japanese men. Lancet 342, 1209–1210.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Adlercreutz, H & Martin, F (1980) Biliary excretion and intestinal metabolism of progesterone and estrogens in man. Journal of Steroid Biochemistry 13, 231–244.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Adlercreutz, H & Mazur, W (1997) Phyto-estrogens and Western diseases. Annals of Medicine 29, 95–120.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Adlercreutz, H, Mousavi, Y, Clark, J, Höckerstedt, K, Hämäläinen, E, Wahala, K, Mäkelä, T & Hase, T (1992) Dietary phytoestrogens and cancer: in vitro and in vivo studies. Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Metabolism 41, 331–337.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Allen, NE, Appleby, PN, Davey, GK, & Key, TJ (2000) Hormones and diet: low insulin-like growth factor but normal bioavailable androgens in vegan men. British Journal of Cancer 83, 95–97.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anderson, JW, O'Neal, DS, Ridell-Mason, S, Floore, TL, Dillon, DW & Oeltgen, PR (1995) Postprandial serum glucose, insulin and lipoprotein responses to high- and low-fibre diets. Metabolism 44, 848–854.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Armstrong, BK, Brown, JB, Clarke, HT, Crooke, DK, Hahnel, R, Masarei, JR, & Ratajczak, T (1981) Diet and reproductive hormones: a study of vegetarian and non-vegetarian postmenopasual women. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 67, 761–767.Google Scholar
Bahnsen, M, Gluud, C, Johnsen, SG, Bennett, P, Svenstrup, S, Micic, S, Dietrichson, O, Svendsen, LB, & Brodthagen, UA (1981) Pituitary-testicular function in patients with alcoholic cirrhosis of the liver. European Journal of Clinical Investigation 11, 473–479.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baird, DD, Umbach, DM, Landsell, L, Hughes, CL, Setchell, KDR, Weinberg, CR, Habey, AF, Wilcox, AJ, & McLachlan, JA (1995) Dietary intervention study to assess estrogenicity of dietary soy among postmenopausal women. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 80, 1685–1690.Google ScholarPubMed
Ball, M (1997) Vegetarian, vegan or meat-eater: the pros and cons. Australian Family Physician 26, 1269–1274.Google ScholarPubMed
Barbosa, JC, Shultz, TD, Filley, SJ, & Neiman, DC (1990) The relationship among adiposity, diet and hormone concentrations in vegetarian and non-vegetarian postmenopausal women. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 51, 798–803.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barnes, S, Peterson, G, & Coward, L (1995) Rationale for the use of genistein-containing soy matrices in chemoprevention trials for breast and prostate cancer. Journal of Cellular Biochemistry 22, Suppl., 181s–187s.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barrett-Connor, E & Khaw, KT (1987) Cigarette smoking and increased endogenous estrogen levels in men. American Journal of Epidemiology 126, 187–192.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bélanger, A, Locong, A, Noel, C, Cusan, L, Dupont, A, Prévost, J, Caron, S & Sévigny, J (1989) Influence of diet on plasma steroid and sex plasma binding globulin levels in adult men. Journal of Steroid Biochemistry 32, 829–833.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Belis, JA (1980) Methodological basis for the radioimmunoassay of endogenous steroids in human prostatic tissue. Investigative Urology 17, 332–336.Google ScholarPubMed
Birkett, AM, Jones, GP, de Silva, AM, Young, GP & Muir, JG (1997) Dietary intake and faecal excretion of carbohydrate by Australians: importance of achieving stool weights greater than 150g to improve faecal markers relevant to colon cancer risk. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 51, 625–632.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bishop, TD, Meikle, AW, Slattery, ML, Stringham, JD, Ford, MH, & West, DW (1988) The effect of nutritional factors on sex hormone levels in male twins. Genetic Epidemiology 5, 43–59.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bowey, EA, Rowland, IR, Adlercreutz, H, Sanders, TAB, & Wiseman, H (1988) Inter-individual variation in soya-bean isoflavone metabolism: the role of habitual diet. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 57, 161A.Google Scholar
Brotherhood, JR (1984) Nutrition and preventative medicine. Sports Medicine 1, 350–389.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bruchovsky, N, Rennie, PS, Batzold, FH, Goldenberg, SL, Fletcher, T, & McLoughlin, MG (1988) Kinetic parameters of 5α-reductase activity in stroma and epithelium of normal, hyperplastic, and carcinomatous human prostates. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 67, 806–816.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bruning, PF & Bonfrer, JMG (1986) Free fatty acid concentrations correlated with the available fraction of estradiol in human plasma. Cancer Research 46, 2606–2609.Google ScholarPubMed
Brzezinski, A, Adlercreutz, H, Shaoul, R, Rösler, A, Shmueli, A, Tanos, V & Schenker, JG (1997) Short-term effects of phytoestrogen-rich diet on postmenopausal women. Menopause 4, 89–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cassidy, A, Faughnan, M, Hughes, R, Fraser, C, Cathcart, A, Taylor, N, Setchell, KDR, & Bingham, S (1998) Hormonal effects of phytoestrogens in postmenopausal women and middle-aged men. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 68, 1531A.Google Scholar
Coffey, DS & Isaacs, JT (1981) Control of prostate growth. Urology 13, 17s–24s.Google Scholar
Cooke, RR, McIntosh, JEA, & McIntosh, RP (1993) Circadian variation in serum free and non-SHBG-bound testosterone in normal men: measurements, and simulation using a mass action model. Clinical Endocrinology 39, 163–171.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cummings, JH, Wiggins, HS, Jenkins, DJ, Houston, H, Jivraj, T, Drasar, BS, & Hill, MJ (1978) Influence of diets high and low in animal fat on bowel habit, gastrointestinal transit time, fecal microflora, bile acids and fat excretion. Journal of Clinical Investigation 61, 953–963.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dai, WS, Gutai, JP, Kuller, LH, & Cauley, JA (1988) Cigarette smoking and serum sex hormones in men. American Journal of Epidemiology 128, 796–805.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dai, WS, Kuller, LH, LaPorte, RE, Gutai, JP, Falvo-Gerard, L & Caggiula, A (1981) The epidemiology of plasma testosterone levels in middle-aged men. American Journal of Epidemiology 114, 804–816.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
De Jong, FH, Oishi, K, Hayes, RB, Bogdanowicz, JF, Raatgever, JW, van der Mass, PS, Yoshida, O & Schroeder, FH (1991) Peripheral hormone levels in controls and patients with prostate cancer or benign prostatic hyperplasia: results from the Dutch–Japanese case-control study. Cancer Research 51, 3445–3450.Google ScholarPubMed
Denis, L, Morton, MS, & Griffiths, K (1999) Diet and its preventative role in prostatic disease. European Urology 35, 377–387.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Deslypere, JP & Vermeulen, A (1984) Leydig cell function in normal men: effect of age, life-style, residence, diet and activity. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 59, 955–962.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Distiller, LA, Sagel, J, Dubowitz, B, Kay, G, Carr, PJ, Katz, M, & Kew, MC (1976) Pituitary–gonadal function in men with alcoholic cirrhosis of the liver. Hormone and Metabolic Research 8, 461–465.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Diver, MJ (1993) The effects of free fatty acids on the in vitro binding of testosterone in human plasma. Journal of Endocrinology 136, 327–330.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dorgan, JF, Judd, JT, Longcope, C, Brown, C, Schatzkin, A, Clevidence, BA, Campbell, WS, Nair, PN, Franz, C, Kahle, L, & Taylor, PR (1996) Effects of dietary fat and fiber on plasma and urine androgens and estrogens in men: a controlled feeding study. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 64, 850–855.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Duncan, S, Blacklaw, J, Beastall, GH, & Brodie, MJ (1999) Antiepileptic drug therapy and sexual function in men with epilepsy. Epilepsia 49, 197–204.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dunn, JF, Nisula, BC, & Rodbard, D (1981) Transport of steroid hormones: binding of 21 endogenous steroid to both testosterone-binding globulin and corticosteroid-binding globulin in human plasma. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 53, 58–68.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ehrlichman, RJ, Issacs, JT, & Coffey, DS (1981) Differences of the effects of estradiol on DHT-induced prostatic growth of the castrate dog and rat. Investigative Urology 18, 466–470.Google ScholarPubMed
Ellingboe, J (1987) Acute effects of ethanol on sex hormones in non-alcoholic men and women. Alcohol and Alcoholism 1, 109s–116s.Google ScholarPubMed
Ellis, L & Nyborg, H (1992) Racial/ethnic variations in male testosterone levels: a probable contributor to group differences in health. Steroids 57, 72–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Evans, BAJ, Griffiths, K, & Morton, MS (1995) Inhibition of 5α-reductase in genital skin fibroblasts and prostate tissue by dietary lignans and isoflavonoids. Journal of Endocrinology 147, 295–302.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Farnsworth, WE (1996) Roles of estrogen and sex hormone-binding globulin in prostate physiology. Prostate 28, 17–23.3.0.CO;2-L>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ferrini, RL & Barrett-Connor, E (1998) Sex hormones and age: a cross-sectional study of testosterone and estradiol and their bio-available fractions in community-dwelling men. American Journal of Epidemiology 147, 750–754.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Field, AE, Colditz, GA, Willett, WC, Longcope, C, & McKinlay, JB (1994) The relation of smoking, age, relative weight and dietary intake to serum adrenal steroids, sex hormones and sex hormone-binding globulin in middle-aged men. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 79, 1310–1316.Google ScholarPubMed
Foppiani, L, Uva, V, Falivene, M, Valenti, S, Traversa, C, Rasore, E, & Giusti, M (1997) Anorexia nervosa: a follow-up of nutritional, hormonal and psychiatric parameters. Minerva Medica 86, 537–542.Google Scholar
Gann, PH, Hennekens, CH, Ma, J, Longcope, C, & Stampfer, MJ (1996) Prospective study of sex hormone levels and risk of prostate cancer. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 88, 1118–1126.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Giles, G & Ireland, P (1997) Diet, nutrition and prostate cancer. International Journal of Cancer 10, Suppl., 13s–17s.3.0.CO;2-C>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Glass, AR, Swerdloff, RS, Bray, GA, Dahms, WT, & Atkinson, RL (1977) Low serum testosterone and sex hormone-binding globulin in massively obese men. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology 45, 1211–1219.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goldin, BR, Adlercreutz, H, Gorbach, SL, Warram, JH, Dwyer, JT, Swenson, L, & Woods, MN (1982) Estrogen excretion patterns and plasma levels in vegetarian and omnivorous women. New England Journal of Medicine 307, 1542–1547.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goldin, BR & Gorbach, SL (1976) The relationship between diet and rat fecal bacterial enzymes implicated in colon cancer. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 57, 371–375.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goldin, BR, Swenson, L, Dwyer, J, Sexton, M, & Gorbach, SL (1980) Effect of diet and Lactobacillus acidophilus supplements on human fecal bacterial enzymes. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 64, 255–261.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goldin, BR, Woods, MN, Spiegelman, DL, Longcope, C, Morrill-LaBrode, A, Dwyer, JT, Gualtieri, LJ, Hertzmark, E & Gorbach, SL (1994) The effect of dietary fat and fiber on serum estrogen concentrations in pre-menopausal women under controlled dietary conditions. Cancer 74, 1125s–1131s.3.0.CO;2-5>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goldman, J, Wajchenberg, B, Liberman, M, Nery, S, Achando, S, & Germek, OA (1985) Contrast analysis for the evaluation of the circadian rhythms of plasma cortisol, androstenedione and testosterone in normal men and the possible influence of meals. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 60, 164–167.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gooren, LJG (1996) The age-related decline of androgen levels in men: clinically significant?. British Journal of Andrology 78, 763–768.Google ScholarPubMed
Gordon, GG, Altman, K, Southren, AL, Rubin, E, & Lieber, CS (1976) Effect of alcohol (ethanol) administration on sex-hormone metabolism in normal men. New England Journal of Medicine 295, 793–797.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gray, A, Berlin, JA, McKinlay, JB, & Longcope, C (1991) An examination of research design effects on the association of testosterone and male aging: results of a meta-analysis. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 44, 671–684.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Groh, H, Schade, K & Horhold-Schubert, C (1993) Steroid metabolism with intestinal micro-organisms. Journal of Basic Microbiology 33, 59–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haffner, SM (1996) Sex hormone-binding globulin protein, hyperinsulinaemia, insulin resistance and non-insulin-dependent diabetes. Hormone Research 45, 233–237.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haffner, SM, Valdez, RA, Mykkanen, L, Stern, MP, & Katz, MS (1994) Decreased testosterone and dehydroepiandrosterone sulphate concentrations are associated with increased insulin and glucose concentrations in non-diabetic men. Metabolism 43, 599–603.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hämäläinen, E, Adlercreutz, H, Puska, P & Pietinen, P (1984) Diet and serum sex hormones in healthy men. Journal of Steroid Biochemistry 20, 459–464.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Henderson, BE, Bernstein, L, Ross, RK, Depue, RH, & Judd, HL (1988) The early in utero oestrogen and testosterone environment of blacks and whites: potential effects on male offspring. British Journal of Cancer 57, 216–218.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hill, P, Wynder, E, Garbaczewski, L, Garnes, H, Walker, ARP, & Helman, P (1980) Plasma hormones and lipids in men at different risk for coronary heart disease. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 33, 1010–1018.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hill, P, Wynder, EL, Garbaczewski, L, & Walker, ARP (1982) Effect of diet on plasma and urinary hormones in South African black men with prostatic cancer. Cancer Research 42, 3864–3869.Google ScholarPubMed
Howie, BJ & Shultz, TD (1985) Dietary and hormonal interrelationships among vegetarian Seventh Day Adventists and non-vegetarian men. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 42, 127–134.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hsieh, CC, Signorello, LB, Lipworth, L, Lagiou, P, Mantzoros, CS, & Trichopoulos, D (1998) Predictors of sex hormone levels among the elderly: a study in Greece. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 51, 837–841.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hughes, R, Cassidy, A, & Bingham, S (1994) Hormonal effects of lignans in a group of men. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 53, 230A.Google Scholar
Hutchins, AM, Slavin, JL, & Lampe, JW (1995) Urinary isoflavonoid phytoestrogen and lignan excretion after consumption of fermented and unfermented soy products. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 95, 545–551.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Järvenpää, P, Kosunen, T, Fotsis, T & Adlercreutz, H (1980) In vitro metabolism of estrogens by isolated intestinal micro-organisms and by human faecal microflora. Journal of Steroid Biochemistry 13, 345–349.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jenkins, DJA, Wolever, TMS, Leeds, AR, Gassull, MA, Haisman, P, Dilawari, J, Goff, DR, Metz, GL, & Alberti, KG (1978) Dietary fibres, fibre analogues and glucose tolerance: importance of viscosity. British Medical Journal 1, 1392–1394.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jin, F, Devesa, SS, Zheng, W, Blot, WJ, Fraumeni, JF, & Gao, YT (1993) Cancer incidence trends in urban Shanghai, 1972–1989. International Journal of Cancer 53, 764–770.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kaiser, FE, Viosca, SP, Morley, JE, Mooradian, AD, Davis, SS, & Korenman, SG (1988) Impotence and aging: clinical and hormonal factors. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society 36, 511–519.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kaufman, JM, Deslypere, JP, Giri, M, & Vermeulen, A (1990) Neuroendocrine regulation of pulsatile luteinizing hormone secretion in elderly men. Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 37, 421–430.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kay, RM & Strasberg, SM (1978) Origin, chemistry, physiological effects and clinical importance of dietary fibre. Clinical and Investigative Medicine 1, 9–24.Google ScholarPubMed
Key, TJA, Pike, MC, Moore, JW, Wang, DY, & Morgan, B (1990) The relationship of free fatty acids with the binding of oestradiol to sex hormone-binding globulin and to albumin in women. Journal of Steroid Biochemistry 35, 35–38.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Key, TJA, Roe, L, Thorogood, M, Moore, JW, Clark, GM, & Wang, DY (1990) Testosterone, sex hormone-binding globulin, calculated free testosterone and oestradiol in male vegans and omnivores. British Journal of Nutrition 64, 111–119.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kletter, GB, Padmanabhan, V, Beitins, IZ, Marshall, JC, Kelch, RP, & Foster, CM (1997) Acute effects of estradiol infusion and naloxone on luteinising hormone secretion in pubertal boys. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 82, 4010–4014.Google ScholarPubMed
Kley, HK, Deselaers, T, Peerenboom, H, & Kruskemper, HL (1980) Enhanced conversion of androstenedione to estrogens in obese males. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 51, 1128–1132.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kley, HK, Edelmann, P, & Kruskemper, HL (1980) Relationship of plasma sex hormones to different parameters of obesity in male subjects. Metabolism 29, 1041–1045.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Korenman, SG, Morley, JE, Mooradian, AD, Davis, SS, Kaiser, FE, Silver, AJ, Viosca, SP, & Garza, D (1990) Secondary hypogonadism in older men: its relationship to impotence. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 71, 963–969.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krenz, LE, Rose, RM, & Jennings, JR (1972) Suppression of plasma testosterone levels and psychological stress: a longitudinal study of young men in office candidate school. Archives of General Psychiatry 26, 479–482.Google Scholar
Kubricht, WS, Williams, BJ, Whatley, T, Pinckard, P, & Eastham, JA (1999) Serum testosterone levels in African–American and white men undergoing prostate biopsy. Urology 54, 1035–1038.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lado-Abeal, JH, Prieto, D, Lorenzo, M, Lojo, S, Febrero, M, Camarero, E & Cabezas-Cerrato, J (1999) Differences in men and women as regards the effects of protein–energy malnutrition on the hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis. Nutrition 15, 351–358.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lampe, JW, Martini, MC, Kurzer, MS, Adlercreutz, H, & Slavin, JL (1994) Urinary lignan and isoflavonoid excretion in premenopausal women consuming flaxseed powder. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 60, 122–128.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lazarus, R, Sparrow, D, & Weiss, S (1998) Temporal relations between obesity and insulin: longitudinal data from the Normative Aging Study. American Journal of Epidemiology 147, 173–179.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lecomte, P, Lecureuil, N, Lecureuil, M, Lemonnier, Y, Mariotte, N, Valat, C, & Garrigue, MA (1998) Sex differences in the control of sex hormone-binding globulin in the elderly: role of insulin-like growth factor-I and insulin. European Journal of Endocrinology 139, 178–183.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lee, PA, Bellinger, MF, & Coughlin, MT (1998) Correlations among hormone levels, sperm parameters and paternity in formerly unilaterally cryptorchid men. Journal of Urology 160, 1155–1157.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lewis, SL, Heaton, KW, Oakey, RE, & McGarrigle, HH (1997) Lower serum oestrogen concentrations associated with faster intestinal transit. British Journal of Cancer 76, 395–400.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Liu, PY, Turner, L, Rushford, D, McDonald, J, Baker, HW, Conway, AJ, & Handelsman, DJ (1999) Efficacy and safety of recombinant human follicle stimulating hormone (Gonal-F) with urinary human chorionic gonadotrophin for induction of spermatogenesis and fertility in gonadotrophin-deficient men. Human Reproduction 14, 1540–1545.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Longcope, C, Feldman, HA, McKinlay, JB, & Araujo, AB (2000) Diet and sex hormone-binding globulin. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 85, 293–296.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lookingbill, DP, Demers, LM, Wang, C, Leung, A, Rittmaster, RS, & Santen, RJ (1991) Clinical and biological parameters of androgen action in normal healthy Caucasian versus Chinese subjects. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 72, 1241–1248.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Loukovaara, M, Carson, M, Palotie, A, & Adlercreutz, H (1995) Regulation of sex hormone-binding globulin production by isoflavonoids and patterns of isoflavonoid conjugation in HepG2 cell cultures. Steroids 60, 656–661.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lu, LJW, Anderson, KE, Grady, JJ, & Nagamini, M (1996) Effects of soya consumption for one month on steroid hormones in premenopausal women: implications for breast cancer reduction. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention 5, 63–70.Google Scholar
Lu, LJW, Anderson, KE, Nealon, W, & Nagamini, M (1998) One month of soy consumption reduces concentrations of circulating steroid hormones and cholecystokinin in men and women. American Journal of Clinical and Nutrition 68, 1531A.Google Scholar
Lu, LJW, Grady, JJ, Marshall, MV, Sadagopa Ramanujam, VM & Anderson, KE (1995) Altered time course of urinary daidzein and genistein excretion during chronic soya diet in healthy male subjects. Nutrition and Cancer 24, 311–323.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Manni, A, Pardridge, WM, Cefalu, W, Nisula, BC, Bardin, CW, Santner, SJ, & Santen, RS (1985) Bioavailability of albumin-bound testosterone. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 61, 705–710.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Markiewicz, L, Garey, J, Adlercreutz, H, & Gurpide, E (1993) In vitro bioassays of non-steroidal phytoestrogens. Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 45, 399–405.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Martin, ME, Vranckx, R, Benassayag, C, & Nunez, EA (1986) Modifications of the properties of human sex steroid-binding protein by nonesterified fatty acids. Journal of Biological Chemistry 261, 2954–2959.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marynick, SP, Loriaux, DL, Sherins, RJ, Pita, JC, & Lipsett, MB (1979) Evidence that testosterone can suppress pituitary gonadotrophin secretion independently of peripheral aromatization. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 49, 396–398.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Matzkin, H & Soloway, MS (1993) Cigarette smoking: a review of possible associations with benign prostatic hyperplasia and prostate cancer. Prostate 22, 277–290.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miller, SL & Wolfe, RR (1999) Physical exercise as a modulator of adaptation to low and high carbohydrate and low and high fat intakes. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 52, 112s–119s.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morley, JE, Kasier, FE, Perry, HM, Patrick, P, Morley, PMK, Stauber, PM, Vellas, B, Baumgartner, RN, & Garry, PJ (1997) Longitudinal changes in testosterone, luteinising hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone in healthy older men. Metabolism 46, 410–413.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mousavi, Y & Adlercreutz, H (1993) Genistein is an effective stimulator of sex hormone-binding globulin production in hepatocarcinoma in human liver cancer cells and suppresses proliferation of these cells in culture. Steroids 58, 301–304.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nagata, C, Kabuta, M, Kurisu, Y, & Shimizu, H (1997) Decreased serum estradiol concentration associated with high dietary intake of soy products in premenopausal Japanese women. Nutrition and Cancer 29, 228–233.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nahoul, K & Roger, M (1990) Age-related decline of plasma bio-available testosterone in adult men. Journal of Steroid Biochemistry 35, 293–299.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nilsson, PM, Moller, L, & Solstad, K (1995) Adverse effects of psychological stress on gonadal function and insulin levels in middle-aged men. Journal of Internal Medicine 237, 479–486.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parkin, OM, Muir, CS, Whelan, S, Gao, T, Ferlay, J & Powell, J (1992) Cancer Incidence in Five Continents, vol. 6 International Agency for Research into Cancer Scientific Publication no. 120. Lyon, France: International Agency for Research into Cancer.Google Scholar
Pasquali, R, Casimirri, F, De Iasio, R, Mesini, P, Boschi, S, Chierici, B, Flamia, R, Biscotti, M & Vicennati, V (1995) Insulin regulates testosterone and sex hormone-binding globulin concentrations in adult normal-weight and obese men. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 80, 654–658.Google ScholarPubMed
Pasquali, R, Macor, C, Vicennati, V, Novo, F, De lasio, R, Messini, P, Boschi, S, Casimirri, F & Vettor, R (1997) Effects of acute hyperinsulinemia on testosterone serum concentrations in adult obese and normal-weight men. Metabolism 46, 526–529.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pelissero, C, Lenczowski, MJP, Chinzi, D, Davailcuisset, B, Stumpter, JP, & Fostier, A (1996) Effects of flavonoids on aromatase activity: an in vitro study. Journal of Steroids, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 57, 215–223.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Phipps, WR, Martini, MC, Lampe, JW, Slavin, JL, & Kurzer, MS (1993) Effect of flaxseed ingestion on the menstrual cycle. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 77, 1215–1219.Google ScholarPubMed
Plymate, SR, Jones, RE, Matej, LA, & Freidl, KE (1988) Regulation of sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) production in Hep G2 cells by insulin. Steroids 52, 339–340.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pusateri, DJ, Roth, WT, Ross, JK, & Shultz, TD (1990) Dietary and hormonal evaluation of men at different risks for prostate cancer: plasma and fecal hormone-nutrient interrelationships. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 51, 371–377.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Raben, A, Kiens, B, Richter, EA, Rasmussen, LB, Svenstrup, B, Micic, S, & Bennett, P (1992) Serum sex hormones and endurance performance after a lacto-ovo-vegetarian and a mixed diet. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 24, 1290–1297.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reddy, BS, Hanson, D, Mangat, S, Matthews, L, Sbaschnig, M, Sharma, C, & Simi, B (1980) Effect of high-fat, high-beef diet and of mode of cooking of beef in the diet on fecal bacterial enzymes and fecal bile acids and neutral sterols. Journal of Nutrition 110, 1880–1887.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reed, MJ, Cheng, RW, Beranek, PA, Few, JD, Franks, S, Ghilchik, MW, & James, VH (1986) The regulation of the biologically available fractions of oestradiol and testosterone in plasma. Journal of Steroid Biochemistry 24, 317–320.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reed, MJ, Cheng, RW, Simmonds, M, Richmond, W, & James, VHT (1987) Dietary lipids: an additional regulator of plasma levels of sex hormone-binding globulin. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 64, 1083–1085.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rittmaster, RS, Zwicker, H, Thompson, DL, Konok, G, & Norman, RW (1993) Androstanediol glucuronide production in human liver, prostate and skin: evidence for the importance of the liver in 5α-reduced androgen metabolism. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 76, 977–982.Google Scholar
Rose, DP, Boyar, AP, & Wynder, EL (1986) International comparisons of mortality rates for cancer of the breast, ovary, prostate and colon, and per capita food consumption. Cancer 58, 2362–2371.3.0.CO;2-#>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rose, DP, Goldman, M, Connolly, JM, & Strong, LE (1991) High-fiber diet reduces serum estrogen concentrations in premenopausal women. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 54, 520–525.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rosenthal, MB, Barnard, RJ, Rose, DP, Inkeles, S, Hall, J, & Pritikin, N (1985) Effects of high-complex carbohydrate, low-fat, low-cholesterol diet on levels of serum lipids and estradiol. American Journal of Medicine 78, 23–27.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rosner, W (1990) The functions of corticosteroid-binding globulin and sex hormone-binding globulin: recent advances. Endocrine Reviews 11, 80–91.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ross, JK, Pusateri, DJ, & Shultz, TD (1990) Dietary and hormonal evaluation of men at different risks of prostate cancer: fiber intake, excretion and composition, with in vitro evidence for an association between steroid hormones and specific fiber components. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 51, 365–370.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ross, R, Bernstein, L, Judd, H, Hanisch, R, Pike, M, & Henderson, B (1986) Serum testosterone levels in healthy young black and white men. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 76, 45–48.Google ScholarPubMed
Ross, RK, Bernstein, L, Lobo, RA, Shimizu, H, Stanczyk, FZ, Pike, MC, & Henderson, BE (1992) 5α-reductase activity and risk of prostate cancer among Japanese and U.S. white and black males. Lancet 339, 887–889.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Santer, SJ, Albertson, B, Zhang, G-Y, Zhang, G-H, Santulli, M, Wang, C, Demers, LM, Shackleton, C & Santen, RJ (1998) Comparative rates of androgen production and metabolism in Caucasian and Chinese subjects. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 83, 2104–2109.Google Scholar
Sapin, R, Schlienger, JL, Gasser, F, & Chambron, J (1992) Changes in serum testosterone levels after myocardial infarction. Journal of Nuclear Biology and Medicine 36, 20–25.Google ScholarPubMed
Sathyamoorthy, N, Wang, TTY, & Phang, JM (1994) Stimulation of pS2 expression by diet-derived compounds. Cancer Research 54, 957–961.Google ScholarPubMed
Schneider, G, Kirschner, MA, Berkowitz, R, & Ertel, NH (1979) Increased estrogen production in obese men. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 48, 633–638.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Setchell, KDR (1998) Phytoestrogens: the biochemistry, physiology and implications for human health of soy isoflavones. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 68, 133S–146S.Google ScholarPubMed
Shetty, PS & Kurpad, AV (1986) Increasing starch intake in the human diet increases fecal bulking. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 43, 210–212.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shultz, TD & Howie, DJ (1986) In vitro binding of steroid hormones by natural and purified fibres. Nutrition and Cancer 8, 141–147.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shultz, TD, Bonorden, WR, & Seaman, WR (1991) Effect of short-term flaxseed consumption on lignan and sex hormone metabolism in men. Nutrition Research 11, 1089–1100.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simon, D, Preziosi, P, Barrett-Connor, E, Roger, M, Saint-Paul, M, Nahoul, K & Papoz, L (1992) The influence of aging on plasma sex hormones in men: the Telecom study. American Journal of Epidemiology 135, 783–791.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smith, U (1994) Carbohydrates, fat and insulin action. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 59, 686s–689s.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stark, AH, Switzer, BR, Atwood, JR, Travis, RG, Smith, JL, Ullrich, F, Ritenbaugh, C, Hatch, J, & Wu, X (1998) Estrogen profiles in postmenopausal African-American women in a wheat bran fiber intervention study. Nutrition and Cancer 31, 138–142.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stefanick, ML, Williams, PT, Krauss, RM, Terry, RB, Vranizan, KM, & Wood, PD (1987) Relationships of plasma estradiol, testosterone, sex hormone-binding protein with lipoproteins, apolipoproteins, and high density lipoprotein sub-fractions in men. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 64, 723–729.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Strain, G, Zumoff, B, Rosner, W & Pi-Suyner, X (1994) The relationship between serum levels of insulin and sex hormone-binding globulin in men: the effect of weight loss. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 79, 1173–1176.Google ScholarPubMed
Suzuki, H, Tominaga, T, Kumagai, H, & Saruta, T (1988) Effects of first-line antihypertensive agents on sexual function and sex hormones. Journal of Hypertension 6, 649s–651s.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tchernof, A, Labrie, F, Bélanger, A, Prud'homme, D, Bouchard, C, Tremblay, A, Nadeau, A & Despres, JP (1997) Relationships between endogenous steroid hormones, SHBG and lipoprotein levels in men: contribution of visceral obesity, insulin levels and other metabolic variables. Atherosclerosis 133, 235–244.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Theorell, TK, Karasek, RA, & Eneroth, P (1990) Job strain variations in relation to plasma testosterone fluctuations in working men - a longitudinal study. Journal of Internal Medicine 227, 31–36.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thigpen, AE, Silver, TI, Guileyardo, JM, Casey, ML, McConnell, JD, & Russell, DW (1993) Tissue distribution and ontogeny of steroid 5α-reductase isozyme expression. Journal of Clinical Investigation 92, 903–910.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thompson, LU, Robb, P, Serraino, M, & Cheung, F (1991) Mammalian lignan production from various foods. Nutrition and Cancer 16, 43–52.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thorsdottir, I, Anderson, H, & Einarsson, S (1998) Sugar beet fiber in formula diet reduces postprandial blood glucose, serum insulin and serum hydroxyproline. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 51, 155–156.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tomova, A & Kumanov, P (1999) Sex differences and similarities of hormonal alternation in patients with anorexia nervosa. Andrologia 31, 143–147.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Valero-Politi, J & Fuentes-Arderiu, X (1993) Within- and between-subject biological variations of follitropin, lutropin, testosterone and sex hormone-binding globulin in men. Clinical Chemistry 39, 1723–1725.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Valimaki, M, Salaspuro, M, Härkönen, M & Ylikahri, R (1982) Liver damage and sex hormones in chronic male alcoholics. Clinical Endocrinology 17, 469–477.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vegetarian Society UK (2000) Summary of RealEat polls, 1984-1999. Vegetarian Society Information Sheet. accessed 25.4.2000. http:\\\\www.vegsoc.org/info/realeat.html.Google Scholar
Vermeulen, A, Kaufman, JM, Deslypere, JP, & Thomas, G (1993) Attenuated luteinising hormone (LH) pulse amplitude but normal LH pulse frequency, and its relation to plasma androgens in hypogonadism of obese men. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 76, 1140–1146.Google ScholarPubMed
Vermeulen, A, Kaufman, JM, & Giagulli, VA (1996) Influence of some biological indexes on sex hormone-binding globulin and androgen levels in aging or obese males. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 81, 1821–1826.Google ScholarPubMed
Vermeulen, A & Verdonck, G (1992) Representativeness of a single point plasma testosterone level for the long term hormonal milieu in men. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 74, 939–942.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Warren, MP, Voussoughian, F, Geer, EB, Hyle, EP, Adberg, CL, & Ramos, RH (1999) Functional hypothalamic amenorrhea: hypoleptinemia and disordered eating. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 84, 873–877.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wilding, G (1995) Endocrine control of prostate cancer. In Preventing Prostate Cancer: Screening vs. Chemoprevention. Cancer Surveys, vol. 23 [Olliver, RTD, Belldegrum, A and Wrigley, PFM, editors]. Cold Spring Harbor, NY: Cold Spring Harbor Lab Press.Google Scholar
Winters, SJ & Atkinson, L (1997) Serum luteinising hormone concentrations in hypogonadal men during transdermal testosterone replacement through scrotal skin: further evidence that ageing enhances testosterone negative feedback. The Testoderm Study Group. Clinical Endocrinology 47, 317–322.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
World Health Organization (1985) Energy and Protein Requirements. Report of a Joint FAO/WHO/UNU Expert Consultation. WHO Technical Report Series no. 724. Geneva: WHO.Google Scholar
Wu, AH, Whittemore, AS, Kolonel, LN, John, EM, Gallagher, RP, West, DW, Hankin, J, The, CZ, Dreon, DM, & Paffenbarger, RS (1995) Serum androgens and sex hormone-binding globulin in relation to lifestyle factors in older African-American, white and Asian men in the United States and Canada. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention 4, 735–741.Google Scholar
Ylikahri, RH, Huttunen, MO, Härkönen, M, Leino, T, Helenius, T, Liewendahl, K & Karonen, SL (1978) Acute effects of alcohol on anterior pituitary secretion of the trophic hormones. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 46, 715–720.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yu, H, Harris, RE, Gao, YT, & Wynder, LE (1991) Comparative epidemiology of cancers of the colon, rectum, prostate and breast in Shanghai, China versus the US. International Journal of Epidemiology 20, 76–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zumoff, B, Strain, GW, Kream, J, O'Connor, J, Levin, J & Fukushima, DK (1981) Obese young men have elevated plasma oestrogen levels but obese premenopausal women do not. Metabolism 30, 1011–1014.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zwart, AD, Urban, RJ, Odell, WD, & Veldhuis, JD (1996) Contrasts in the gonadotrophin-releasing hormone dose-response relationships for luteinising hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone and alpha-subunit release in young versus older men: appraisal with high specificity immunoradiometric assay and deconvolution analysis. European Journal of Endocrinology 135, 399–406.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed