Published online by Cambridge University Press: 15 January 2009
Augusto Boal is one of the best-known contemporary practitioners and teachers in the use of drama as a means of challenging the status quo. Starting as a self-proclaimed revolutionary, challenging the artistic theories of Aristotle and seeking to supersede those of Brecht, he developed his ‘Theatre of the Oppressed’ working with the poor of Brazil. Now he is perhaps best known for his work in ‘Forum Theatre’ and ‘Image Theatre’. In this article, David Davis and Carmel O'Sullivan argue that not only have Boal's methods been far from revolutionary for many years, but that they are now focused on individual needs, enabling the individual to survive a little longer within an oppressive social structure. They propose that this is not a case of Marxist revolutionary ideology becoming diluted over time, but that the roots of the change are to be found in a lack of grounding in Marxist theory and philosophy from the beginning. David Davis is Director of the International Centre for Studies in Drama in Education and Professor of Drama in Education at the University of Central England, teaching on the MA programme as well as supervising PhD research. He has presented workshops in many parts of the world, and published widely. Carmel O'Sullivan lectures in the Education Department at Trinity College, Dublin, and is currently completing her doctoral thesis critiquing the theory and practice of Boal at the University of Central England.
1. Boal, Augusto, Games for Actors and Non-Actors (London: Routledge, 1992), p. 134Google Scholar.
2. Boal, Augusto, Theatre of the Oppressed (London: Pluto Press, 1979), p. 155Google Scholar.
3. Ibid., p. 93.
4. Ibid., p. 106.
5. Boal, Augusto, The Rainbow of Desire (London: Routledge, 1995), p. 7Google Scholar.
6. Schutzman, M., ‘Brechtian Shamanism’, in Schutzman, M. and Cohen-Cruz, J., eds., Playing Boal Theatre, Therapy, Activism (London: Routledge, 1994), p. 138Google Scholar.
7. Schutzman, M. and Cruz, J. Cohen, ‘Introduction’, in Schutzman, M. and Cohen-Cruz, J., eds., Playing Boal Theatre, Therapy, Activism (London: Routledge, 1994), p. 4Google Scholar.
8. Feldhendler, Daniel, ‘Augusto Boal and Jacob Moreno’, in Schutzman, M. and Cohen-Cruz, J., eds., Playing Boal – Theatre, Therapy, Activism (London: Routledge, 1994), p. 88Google Scholar.
9. Boal, Augusto, Stop! C'est Magique (Paris: Hatchette, 1980), p. 155Google Scholar.
10. Taussig, Michael and Scheduler, Richard, ‘Boal in Brazil, France, the USA: an Interview with Michael Taussig and Richard Scheduler’, The Drama Review, XXXIV, No. 3 (Fall 1990), p. 52Google Scholar.
11. Augusto Boal, Theatre of the Oppressed.
12. Augusto Boal, The Rainbow of Desire, p. xxi.
13. Ibid., p. 7.
14. Boal, Augusto, Games for Actors and Non-Actors (London: Routledge, 1992), p. xxiiiGoogle Scholar.
15. Augusto Boal, Theatre of the Oppressed, p. 153.
16. Ibid., p. 79.
17. Ibid., p. 93.
18. Brecht, Bertolt, Brecht on Theatre, trans. Willett, John (London: Eyre Methuen, 1964), p. 193Google Scholar.
19. Lunn, Eugene, Marxism and Modernism: an Historical study of Lukacs, Brecht, Benjamin, and Adorno (Berkeley; Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1982), p. 114Google Scholar.
20. Bertolt Brecht, Brecht on Theatre, trans. John Willett, p. 279.
21. Wallis, Mick, ‘Games for Actors and Non-Actors: a Review’, Theatre Research International, XVIII, No. 1 (1993), p. 78–9CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
22. Augusto Boal, The Rainbow of Desire, p. 44.
23. Harman, Chris, How Marxism Worts (London: Bookmarks, 1997), p. 12Google Scholar.
24. Callinicos, Alex, The Revolutionary Ideas of Marx (London: Bookmarks, 1995), p. 46Google Scholar.
25. Harman, How Marxism Works, p. 12.
26. Ibid., p. 12.
27. The first performance of this Forum Theatre piece was at a public meeting with Augusto Boal at the International Student House, Great Portland Street, London, on 24 October 1995. The event was organized by London Bubble. The second performance referred to was during a Forum Theatre workshop, led by Adrian Jackson, 21–25 October 1996, at the Toynbee Studios, Commercial Street, London.
28. Alex Callinicos, The Revolutionary Ideas of Marx, p. 78.
29. Ibid.
30. Taussig, Michael and Schechner, Richard, ‘Boal in Brazil, France, the USA: an Interview with Michael Taussig and Richard Schechner’, The Drama Review, XXXIV, No. 3 (Fall 1990), p. 50–65CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
31. Ibid., p. 58.
32. Boal, Augusto, ‘A Letter to the Editor, from Augusto Boal’, The Drama Review, XXX, No. 3 (1986), p. 9CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
33. Alex Callinicos, The Revolutionary Ideas of Marx, p. 152.
34. Boal, Augusto, Theatre of the Oppressed (London: Pluto Press, 1979), p. 135–7Google Scholar.
35. Callinicos, Alex, The Revolutionary Ideas of Marx (London: Bookmarks, 1995), p. 72Google Scholar.
36. This session took place at a ‘Theatre for Living Cabaret’, led by David Diamond, as part of the Eighth Festival of the Theatre of the Oppressed, held in Toronto in 1997.
37. Augusto Boal, Theatre of the Oppressed, p. 92.
38. Alex Callinicos, The Revolutionary Ideas of Marx, p. 62.
39. Augusto Boal, Theatre of the Oppressed, p. 92.
40. Ibid., p. 122.
41. Ibid., p. 92–3.
42. Boal, Augusto, Legislative Theatre (London: Routledge, 1998), p. 58Google Scholar.
43. Brecht, Bertolt, ‘On Non-Objective Painting’, in Lang, B. and Williams, F., eds., Marxism and Art (1972), p. 423–5Google Scholar.
44. Augusto Boal, The Rainbow of Desire, p. xix.
45. Freire, Paulo and Shor, Ira, A Pedagogy for Liberation: Dialogues on Transforming Education (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1987), p. 109CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
46. Ibid.
47. Lunn, Eugene, Marxism and Modernism: an Historical Study of Lukacs, Brecht, Benjamin, and Adorno (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982)Google Scholar.
48. Alex Callinicos, The Revolutionary Ideas of Marx, p. 18.
49. Augusto Boal, Theatre of the Oppressed.
50. Freire, Paulo, Pedagogy of the Oppressed (London: Sheed and Ward, 1972)Google Scholar.
51. These interventions and reflections took place during a Forum Theatre workshop, led by Adrian Jackson, 21–25 October 1996, at the Toynbee Studios, Commercial Street, London.
52. Freire, Paulo and Shor, Ira, A Pedagogy for Liberation: Dialogues on Transforming Education (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1987), p. 111CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
53. Augusto Boal, Theatre of the Oppressed.
54. Taussig, Michael and Scheduler, Richard, ‘Boal in Brazil, France, the USA: an Interview with Michael Taussig and Richard Scheduler’, The Drama Review, XXXIV, No. 3 (Fall 1990), p. 51Google Scholar.
55. Ibid.
56. Alex Callinicos, The Revolutionary Ideas of Marx, p. 74–5.
57. Marx, Karl, Collected Works, Vol. VI (London: Bookmarks, 1975), p. 166–7Google Scholar.
58. Lunn, Eugene, Marxism and Modernism: an Historical Study of Lukacs, Brecht, Benjamin, and Adorno. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982), p. 116Google Scholar.
59. Augusto Boal, Theatre of the Oppressed, p. 96.
60. Ilyenkov, Evald, Dialectical Logic (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1977), p. 350Google Scholar.
61. Ibid., p. 355.
62. Ibid., p. 354.
63. Lenin, Vladimir, Collected Works, Vol. XXXVIII: Philosophical Notebooks (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1961), p. 361Google Scholar.
64. Augusto Boal, The Rainbow of Desire, p. 40.
65. Boal, Augusto, ‘The Cop in the Head: Three Hypotheses’, trans. Epstein, Susana, The Drama Review, XXXIV, No. 3 (Fall 1990), p. 35–42CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
66. Augusto Boal, Rainbow of Desire Workshop, 28 October-1 November 1996, at Toynbee Studios, Commercial Street, London.
67. Taussig, Michael and Schechner, Richard, ‘Boal in Brazil, France, the USA: an Interview with Michael Taussig and Richard Schechner’, The Drama Review, XXXIV, No. 3 (Fall 1990), p. 61Google Scholar.
68. Augusto Boal, The Rainbow of Desire, p. 73.
69. Bertolt Brecht, Brecht on Theatre, trans. John Willett, p. 196.