198. In so far as unilateral declarations should be deemed to produce unwritten agreements, the following dictum of the International Court of Justice may be quoted in passing: “When states make statements by which their freedom of action is to be limited, a restrictive interpretation is called for” (judgment of 20 December 1974 in the Nuclear Tests Case, ICJ Reports, 1974 p. 267, para. 44)Google Scholar. Cf. pp. 166–167 infra.

199. Yearbook of the International Law Commission, 1964, Vol. II (New York 1965), p. 53.Google Scholar

200. Note here the influence on the extent of proof to be given. According to ProfessorHyde, Charles Cheney, “The Interpretation of Treaties by the Permanent Court of International Justice”, AJIL (1930) p. 19Google Scholar, interpretation, indeed, merges with the handling of evidence of the intentions of the parties. With Professor Sur, one sees the opposite happening: evidence becoming interpretation (see p. 7 supra).

201. Op.cit., p. 54.

202. Pitlo, A., op.cit., pp. 123–124Google Scholar (this writer's translation; the other quotations from Pitlo to follow were likewise translated by him).

203. Ibid., pp. 124–125; Dutch readers may be reminded, here, of Professor Scholten's incisive observations on historical interpretation under the title “Eggens' Bewijsrecht” (Eggens on Evidence), Weekblad voor Privaatrecht, Notarisambt en Registratie (16–23 02 1935)Google Scholar Nos. 3399–3400.

204. Ibid., p. 124.

205. Ibid., p. 125.

206. Ibid., p. 158.

207. Ibid., p. 125. On teleological interpretation in international law, see Sur, , op.cit., pp. 228–231Google Scholar. According to the author, p. 229, interpretation is teleological whenever the interpreter himself rationally constructs the purpose of the treaty and, in interpreting its text, derives conclusions from it. To the interpreter, the purpose of a treaty almost constitutes a pretext for developing the law and opposing himself to the sovereignty of States. “Objectivist” authors, therefore, mostly favour the teleological method, whereas “voluntarists” seek to limit recourse to it.

208. Ibid., p. 126.

209. Ibid., p. 127.

210. See Wiarda, , op.cit., p. 25Google Scholar. A proponent of sociological interpretation as a regular feature of judicial practice is ProfessorSchoordijk, H.C.F., Oordelen en vooroordelen (Judgment and Prejudice) (Deventer 1972) p. 13, n. 3.Google Scholar

211. Tammelo, , op.cit., p. 39Google Scholar: philosophically speaking, the arguments a simili, a fortiori, and a contrario are “formally invalid” (and see p. 43: “quasi-logical arguments”) “but nevertheless have obtained through intelligent use by reputable men in appropriate contexts a [certain?] cogency and dignity”.

212. ICLQ, 1952 p. 251.Google Scholar

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216. Ibid., p. 31 (italics supplied).

217. ICJ Reports 1951 p. 22 (italics supplied).Google Scholar

218. ICJ Reports 1954 p. 55.Google Scholar

219. Ibid., p. 56 (italics supplied).

220. Comp. Bourquin, as quoted at p. 31supra.Google Scholar

221. ICJ Reports, 1954 p. 56.Google Scholar

222. See Art. 1 and 3 of the Brussels International Convention for the Unification of Certain Rules Relating to Penal Jurisdiction in Matters of Collision and Other Incidents of Navigation of 10 May 1952, and Art. 11, para. 1, of the Geneva Convention on the High Seas of 29 April 1958. On the Brussels Convention, comp. ProfessorFrançois', Fifth Report to the International Law Commission, Yearbook of the International Law Commission (1953), Vol. II pp. 51–53.Google Scholar

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225. ICJ Reports, 1974 pp. 286 and 306, respectively.Google Scholar

226. Ibid., pp. 365–366 (para. 109).

227. It comes very close to the technique of comparing situations in the light of a rule of law of an outspokenly general nature, as, e.g., a rule on tort. On the comparative method then used, and on the result of a ius in causa positum, see Wiarda, , op.cit., pp. 62–63 and 65–67.Google Scholar

228. In its advisory opinion of 13 July 1954 (Effect of Awards of Compensation Made by the United Nations Administrative Tribunal), ICJ Reports, 1954 p. 62Google Scholar, the International Court, invited to interpret (not a treaty, but) the Statute of the United Nations Administrative Tribunal, refused to do so in the light of an alleged precedent under the League of Nations.

229. De Visscher, , op.cit., p. 38Google Scholar. Comp. Dictionnaire de la terminologie du droit international (Paris 1960) p. 44Google Scholar, sub voce Analogie: “Procédé d'interprétation consistant à pourvoir à une lacune ou à l'obscurité d'une règie de droit en se référant à ce qui est admis dans une situation ressemblant à celle qui est consideree.”

230. Degan, , op.cit., p. 100Google Scholar. See also Neri, Sergio, op.cit., p. 230.Google Scholar

231. Black, , Law Dictionary, 4th ed. (St. Paul, Minn. 1951) p. 110Google Scholar. Wharton's version of analogy differs from Wiarda's technique (see p. 140, n. 227 supra) in that instead of statute law it concerns judge-made law.

232. Akehurst, Michael, “The Hierarchy of the Sources of International Law”, BYIL, 1974–1975 p. 279, n. 1.Google Scholar

233. Comp. “The Recognized Manifestations” p. 38.Google Scholar

234. But see De Visscher, , op.cit., p. 39Google Scholar: the International Court does not distinguish between analogy and the general principles of law.

235. See, e.g., Lammasch, , Die Lehre von der Schiedsgerichtsbarkeit in ihrem ganzen Urnfange, in Handbuch des Völkerrechts, Vol. III–3 pp. 180–181Google Scholar. ProfessorVerzijl, , International Law in Historical Perspective, Vol. I (Leyden 1968) pp. 50–51Google Scholar, subscribes to the view, as does Siorat, , Le problème des lacunes en droit international (Paris 1958) p. 148.Google Scholar And comp. p. 141, n. 229, supra.

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238. See the judgment handed down by the Permanent Court of International Justice on 17 August 1923 (The S. S. “Wimbledon”), Series A, No. 1 p. 24; and comp. Andreae, J.P. Fockema, op.cit., pp. 64 and 134.Google Scholar

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240. See p. 19 supra.

241. Yearbook of the International Law Commission, 1966, Vol. II p. 219 (para. 6)Google Scholar. Comp. Sur, , op.cit., p. 203Google Scholar: extensive interpretation, instead of denying it, only waters down the principle that interpretation should abstain from modifying a treaty (quoting Professor Monaco); and see ibid., pp. 203–206, 269, and 276, on extensive interpretation (effet utile). Tammelo, , op.cit., p. 13Google Scholar, sees the principle embodied in what now is Article 32(b).

242. See p. 136 supra.

243. For all practical purposes, attention is drawn to the fact that the present distinction of “methods” and “rules” bears no relation to Professor Sur's as reported at p. 8 supra.

244. Permanent Court of International Justice, advisory opinion of 15 May 1931 (Access to German Minority Schools in Upper Silesia), Series A/B No. 40 p. 19.

245. International Court of Justice, advisory opinion of 18 July 1950 (Interpretation of Peace Treaties with Bulgaria, Hungary, and Romania), ICJ Reports, 1950 p. 229; judgment of 27 August 1952 (Case Concerning Rights of Nationals of the United States of America in Morocco), ICJ Reports, 1952 p. 196Google Scholar; and judgment of 18 July 1966 (South West Africa Cases – Second Phase), ICJ Reports, 1966 p. 48.Google Scholar

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247. See Asquith, Lord's award as quoted at p. 138supra.Google Scholar

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252. See p. 28 n. 149 supra.

253. On the scope of Art. 31, para. 3(c), see Sur, , op.cit., p. 284Google Scholar: the provision “consacre le principe de la réintégration du traité dans l'ensemble du droit international”.

254. On a possible hierarchy among Arts. 31 and 32, see Sur, , op.cit., pp. 277–278.Google Scholar

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256. Comp. p. 37 supra.

257. A similar opinion may be Professor Sur's, according to whom, even under Arts. 31–33 of the Vienna Convention, “la liberté de l'interprète doit connaitre des butoirs”. See op.cit., p. 276.

258. Comp. Sur, , op.cit., pp. 226–227Google Scholar, quoting from practice.

259. On Art. 33, comp. Sur, , op.cit., pp. 273–275Google Scholar. The International Law Commission dismissed the idea of a necessarily restrictive interpretation to solve the problems arising from authentication in two or more languages (ibid. p. 274).

260. See p. 137 supra.

261. Le Fur, Louis and Chklaver, Georges, Recueil de Textes de Droit International Public, 2nd ed. (Paris 1934) pp. 165–166Google Scholar. And see an Lnglish translation as prepared by the United States Department of State in Schindler, Dietrich and Toman, Jiri, The Laws of Armed Conflicts (Leyden 1973) pp. 99–100.Google Scholar

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266. Comp. pp. 14–15 supra.

267. See p. 136 supra.

268. In his dissenting opinion, Section IV (The Historical Background of the Drafting of the Mandate), as appended to the International Court's judgment of 18 July 1966 (South West Africa Cases – Second Phase), ICJ Reports, 1966 pp. 352–373Google Scholar, Judge Jessup showed himself to be a strong supporter of the historical method.

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270. See p. 145 supra.

271. Op.cit., p. 221 (as quoted at pp. 147–148 supra).

272. ICJ Reports, 1952 pp. 183, 184, 197 and 198Google Scholar. And see already the Permanent Court of International Justice, judgment of 26 April 1928 (Rights of Minorities in Upper Silesia – Minority Schools), Series A, No. 15 p. 33: “The Treaty would fail in its purpose if it were not to be considered as an established fact that persons who belonged de facto to such a minority must enjoy the protection which had been stipulated.”

273. Yearbook of the International Law Commission, 1966, Vol. II p. 219, para. 6.Google Scholar

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278. See n. 273 at p. 150 supra.

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281. See p. 148 supra.

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288. Quoted at p. 143, n. 244 supra.

289. Series A/B, No. 40 p. 19.

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294. ICJ Reports, 1950 p. 229.Google Scholar

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300. Pillet, Antoine, “Recherches sur les droits fondamentaux des états dans l'ordre des rapports internationaux et sur la solution des conflits qu'ils font naitre”, Revue générate de droit international public, 1898 pp. 55–89, and 236–264Google Scholar; and 1899 pp. 503–532. And see ProfessorTammes, Arnold' comments in his study De wet van het geringste offer (The Law of the Least Sacrifice) for the Royal Academy of Sciences of the Netherlands (Amsterdam 1963).Google Scholar

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356. Ibid., p. 41. Morelli, Gaetano, “Cours général de droit international public”, Rec. ADI, 1956–I p. 467Google Scholar. denies the existence of any general norm authorizing analogy in the interpretation of agreements.

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372. Op.cit., p. 302, n. 8.

373. Op.cit., p. 302.

374. Op.cit., p. 304.

375. Comp. p. 136, n. 200 supra. See further on the restrictive method in interpreting treaties limiting State sovereignty: McNair, , op.cit., pp. 765–766Google Scholar, Tammelo, , op.cit., pp. 13–14Google Scholar, and Sur, , op.cit., pp. 87, 121, 244, and 354–355Google Scholar. In Judge De Castro's opinion, privileges (the opposite of limitations), too, are to be interpreted restrictively. See his separate opinion in the case of Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South Africa in Namibia (South West Africa) Notwithstanding Security Council Resolution 276 (1970), ICJ Reports, 1971 p. 186.Google Scholar

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