The characteristic features and importance of weights and money in different cultures will be illustrated with examples from ancient Egypt, Babylon, Israel and China. In most of these cultures there was a gradual change of the names of weights to the names of money. The weight stones and figures were calibrated with seeds of barley or wheat in the Mediterranean and seeds of millet or rice in China.

The weight of such seeds is rather constant and varies little under different climatic conditions as could be proved from our own investigations. Later these granular weight units were replaced by solid weight standards (e.g. stones or figures) which again were calibrated with counted seeds.

Different materials were used such as basalt, agate, bronze, lead, silver and gold. The metallic weights gradually developed into coins and were used sometimes as weight and as money like the silver Shekel. Chemical analysis with EDAX and X-ray diffraction analysis were carried out on some of these ancient materials. The use of this combination of methods also allowed to distinguish between genuine, original materials and imitations.

The data base for compounds produced during long-term corrosion of iron and copper objects is reviewed. Compounds are identified that occur in long-term but not in short-term corrosion. Where possible, the formation of these compounds is explained or at least rationalized. An effort is made to discriminate those compounds whose formation depends on microbiological action from those forming abiotically.

Recent experiments in the conservation of iron objects from several shipwrecks have resulted in a new method to arrest corrosion and stabilize the materials for further study or exhibition. The process involves the use of electrolysis and the application of a tannin preparation to neutralize the generation of iron-destructive compounds.

A method is described for using vinyl polysiloxane dental impression material to make high definition casts from ceramic objects that bear negative imprints of textiles. Casts made from impressions found on prehistoric ceramic figurines from Ecuador were examined under magnification and features of the yarns and weaves were described. The data are used to reconstruct prehistoric spinning and weaving technology. The use of cloth in figurine manufacture and the reconstructed textile technology are interpreted in spatial, temporal and cultural perspectives.

This paper demonstrates the application of technical studies of the fragmented remains of archaeological textiles to the reconstruction of past textile technologies and to the interpretation of the cultural phenomenon of status differentiation. The analyses of archaeological textile remains recovered from Caddoan burial contexts (Mississippian period) in Oklahoma, Arkansas, and Missouri provided information for the interpretation of differential production and use of textiles by high and low status groups within that prehistoric society of the southeastern United States. The research is based upon the characterization of specific textile attributes and burial context. The data sets utilized in the textile analyses include fabric structure, fabric scale, edge treatment, patterning, design, coloration, yarn structure, and fibers. Production complexity for each textile is assessed and then ranked using a recently developed textile production complexity index. Those specific textile attributes that appear to be most highly associated with status differences are identified using two different statistical procedures. Technological differences as well as textile utilization patterns between high and low groups are explored.

The excavations at the Windover Bog site (8BR246) in 1986 and 1987 yielded 87 specimens of technologically sophisticated textiles and other perishables from 37 human burials. The assemblage currently represents the oldest known textiles from this hemisphere. Unfortunately, microscopic examination has demonstrated that substantial cellular degradation has occurred in these artifacts. In fact, these items are but the dimmest reflections or more accurately skeletons of their former predepositional states. Although traditional consolidants ensured a minimum of warpage and shrinkage with subsequent freeze drying, they produced an undesirable surficial film. Additionally, the resultant products were extremely brittle and required further treatment. To this end, several leading authorities suggested the testing of Parylene gas phase polymer technology on the Windover specimens. The senior author introduced Parylene gas phase technology to the conservation field in 1984. Since that time, numerous evaluation programs have been undertaken at major institutions. Important artifacts as well as extremely ancient natural history materials have been successfully treated utilizing Parylene technology [1]. This paper specifically addresses the application of Parylene gas phase polymer technology to the consolidation and preservation of the unique textile materials recovered from the Windover site. Major areas of discussion are: historical background, early conservation efforts, evaluation and decision to use Parylene technology, properties of the Parylene family of polymers, the method of deposition and treatment, and final conclusions on the consolidation of the treated textiles.

VikaneTM (sulphuryl fluoride) is a commercial fumigant[1] which is used for the control of pests in museum collections. This paper summarizes the results obtained through an investigation of the effect of VikaneTM on twenty-five paper and textile samples. Samples chosen were representative of artifacts present in North American collections (cotton, linen, jute, and wood pulp fibres, from 1622 to present).

The effect of the fumigation treatment has been evaluated by chemical and physical analyses: (1) Acidity -- surface pH, cold extracted pH, total acid (iodometric titration), (2) Oxidative and Hydrolytic Degradation - viscometric average degree of polymerization, carbonyl content (hydrazone derivatization), (3) and Fumigant Residues (specific ion electrode). Analysis of unfumigated and fumigated samples was carried out before and after accelerated ageing (70°C and 50% relative humidity) in order to estimate the long term stability of fumigated samples.

The data obtained show that commercial grade VikaneTM degrades cellulosic and ligneous fibres. A second set of experiments on two fibre types using a new experimental grade of VikaneTM gave significantly less degradation. The presentation of this work will concentrate upon a general scientific interpretation of results.

It is anticipated that the conclusions will be applicable to a broad range of artifacts.

The change of degree of polymerization (DP), crystallinity and extent of oxidation during deterioration of Washi (Japanese paper) were studied. The extent of decrease of DP of cellulose in the Washi samples correlated with their acidity. The higher DP of cellulose in Washi fiber compared to that in wood fibers contributes to its permanency. It is reported that partial recrystallization of the amorphous regions in fibers during ageing results in a decrease of flexibility of the paper. From measurements of X-ray diffraction, less recrystallization of Kozo, Mitsumata and Gampi papers occurs during ageing treatment. This fact also contributes to the persistence of the strength of Washi through time. From measurements of infrared spectra of Washi samples, the amount of oxidation seems to be minimal.

The Benin (Nigeria) “bronzes“1, like many museum objects have been subjected to a variety of coatings and other surface treatments by museums, dealers and private collectors since their removal from Africa during the British Punitive Expedition of 1897. Today these surfaces are discolored, corroded, saturated with “oils and waxes” and generally do not represent the original West African aesthetic. Corrosion often occurs below the “protective” surface coating, despite the apparent visual stability of the surfaces.

Samples of coatings and corrosion from the Benin “bronzes” in the National Museum of African Art have been examined by XRD, SEM-EDZ FT-IR and CLC. Results include the frequent observation of fatty acid salts of copper and other alloy metals.

The application of Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT..IR) to the identification of early semi-synthetic and synthetic plastics is discussed. The sample technique is described. Three materials, natural rubber, cellulose nitrate (celluloid) and cellulose acetate are discussed and examples of identification of these materials are presented.