Caloplaca erecta Arup & H. Mayrhofer is described here as new to science. It belongs to a group of dwarf-fruticose species, but cannot be accommodated within any of the known species of that group. It forms dense cushions of erect lobes on siliceous rocks, and is known only from Mt. Maungatua. This is the second dwarf-fruticose species of Caloplaca in the Australasian area, in addition to C. cribosa.

A revision is presented of the sorediate, lecanoric acid-containing Punctelia species occurring in Europe. Two species are common in western andcentral Europe, viz. Punctelia subrudecta s. str. and Punctelia ulophylla comb. nov.They differ in several morphological characters, most notably in the colour andpruinosity of the margin. Both species occur sympatrically, often together on onetree. A third species, Punctelia perreticulata, is known in Europe only from the Mediterranean.

The biomass of lichens and its vertical distribution on trees were investigated in a > 100-year-old boreal forest in central Finland. The lichen biomass on individual trees was 1292–3669 g tree−1 on Picea abies and 742 g tree −1 on Pinus sylvestris. More than half of the biomass occurred on dead branches. The proportion of Hypogymnia physodes appeared to rise with the canopy height while the other lichens (Platismatia glauca, Bryoria spp. and Pseudevernia furfuracea) decreased. Mean total lichen biomass for sampled trees on an aerial basis was 163 gm −2. The standing crop of litter lichen deposited on ground was about9 gm −2.

Sixty-eight lichen species were found in the lower montane rain forest of Fortuna(1000-1200 m) in the province of Chiriquí, Panama; 33 of these were cyanobacterial lichens. The montane rain forest of the Volcan Bartú (2200-3100 m) yielded 30 species of lichens, 13 of which have cyanobacterial photobionts. Forty of the species reported are new records for Panama. Information concerning their habitats within the forest and their phytogeographical affinities is provided where possible.

Thirty-seven species of calicioid lichens and fungi are reported from the Gongga mountains (China). Chaenothecopsis tibellii and Phaeocalicium tibetanicum are described as new. The new combination Chaenothecopsis himalayensis (Räsänen).Tibell & Titov is proposed. A lectotype is selected for Mycocalicium himalayense Räsänen Chaenothecopsis nigropedata is reported as new to the Northern Hemisphere, Pyrgillus cubanus as new to Eurasia, and Chaenotheca cinerea new to Asia. Seven genera and 34 species are reported as new to China. Descriptions and illustrations of the new species are presented along with data on their habitat ecology and distribution.

The lichen flora of 40 lakes in England, Scotland and Wales is described and related to ecological variables. A zonation scheme consisting of four overlapping bands of lichen vegetation related to height above water level has been adopted. Due to the lack of scour, and the influence of wave action, they do not correspond exactly to the zones identified beside streams, so have been named ‘splash zones’. About a hundred species are involved, a number being rarely recorded aquatic specialists. The flora of all zones is strongly influenced by the alkalinity and pH of the water which have provided a framework for arranging the communities. Lichens are reliable indicators of the sequence: acid, very soft, soft and medium hard water bodies. An investigation into the effect of man-induced eutrophication was undertaken. Other factors of ecological importance are shade and humidity. The conservation of the lake habitat is discussed and a comparison made between streamside and lakeside communities.

Santessoniella rugosa Henssen & Kantvilas is described from south-west Tasmania. The granulose to subfruticose thallus is strongly gelatinous, composed of terete, wrinkled lobes, and bears numerous small, orange apothecia. The species differs from other members of the genus in details of external and internal thallus morphology.

The anatomy of Xanthomaculna convolute shows adaptation to a vagrant life form and to the moisture conditions of its habitat. The differential swelling of the irregularly thickened upper cortex and the medulla, in addition to the rigid medullary structure, due to the deposition of calcium oxalate, allow orderly hygroscopic thalline movements. The architecture of the medulla appears to be closely related to masonry-like arches where the material is only stressed by compression and the stresses are distributed at the hinges. The possible role of crystalline medullary deposition as a radiation reflector is also suggested.

Porina bryophila P. M. McCarthy & Kantvilas is described from living and moribund epiphytic bryophytes in Tasmanian rainforest. The diversity, ecological groups and biogeographical affinities of Tasmanian Trichotheliaceae, currently comprising 25 taxa, are discussed.

Fifteen species of Usnea are recorded from Iberian cork-oak forests: U. ceratina, U. comma, U. dasaea, U. esperantiana, U. flammea, U. fulvoreagens, U. glabrata, U. hirta, U. mutabilis, U. rubicunda, U. subcornuta, U. subfloridana U. subscabrosa, U. substerilis and U. wasmuthii. A key for these species is provided. Details of morphology, chemistry, distribution, ecology and taxonomy are discussed. Usnea dasaea is reported as new to the Iberian Peninsula. New chemotypes of U. fulvoreagens (with squamatic acid) and U. wasmuthii (with psoromic acid) have been identified. Distribution maps of U. dasaeaand U. subcornuta in Europe are presented. A new combination, Usnea subfloridana subsp. praetervisa (Asahina) P. Clerc, is proposed.

The edge effect of large clear-cuts on the epiphytic lichen flora of Picea abies in old-growth forest fragments was studied at three south-exposed and four north-exposed forest clear-cut edges in middle boreal Finland. The sampling of the species cover on trunk bases was carried out along four transects parallel to the forest margin: (1) at the forest margin, (2) 10 m from the margin, (3) 20 m from the margin and (4) 50 m from the margin. In addition, control trees were sampled > 100 m from nearest edge. Our results showed that the epiphytic lichen species diversity was lower at the forest margin than in the forest interior for sunny south-facing edges, while the species diversity in north-exposed edges was independent of the distance from the forest margin. The cover of a common and abundant lichen species, Parmeliopsis ambigua, was slightly higher at the forest edge and decreased inside the forest for both south-exposed and north-exposed edges.

The following new species are described: Degelia calcicola P. M. Jørg. & Kantvilas, a squamulose species from wet calcareous rocks in Tasmania; D. Crustacea P. M. Jørg. & D. J. Galloway, a crustose, corticolous species from northern New Zealand; and D. subcrustata P. M. Jørg. & Kantvilas from dry granitic rocks in southern Australia and Tasmania.

A method for the characterization of insoluble lichen pigments is presented. The method relies on pH–dependent colour reactions before and after pretreatment with HNO3. Diagnostic reactions for 22 different pigments and a key for their identification are given. A standardized nomenclature and a procedure similar to the typification of species in systematic botany is proposed in order to avoid ambiguous naming.

The effects of wave exposure and aspect on the zonation of supralittoral lichens were studied at 14 sites in Hong Kong. In general, increasing wave exposure raised the supralittoral zones and extended their vertical widths. A higher lichen cover in the lower zones (Zones 1 and 2)l was found with greater wave exposures, but the opposite was true for upper zones (Zones 3 and 4). Lichen diversity was greater with increased wave exposure in three out of the four zones (Zones 2–4). The effects of aspect are mainly due to the prevailing winds, which resulted in south- and east-facing shores supporting a higher cover and diversity of lichens. The distribution patterns of lichens on this subtropical seashore differed from previous studies in the temperate regions of the northern hemisphere.

Two new fossil species (Parmelia ambra Poinar, E.B. Peterson & Platt and P. isidiiveteris Poinar, E.B. Peterson & Platt) are described from Dominican amber. The potential evolutionary value of lichens preserved in amber is discussed.

Maximum parsimony analysis of nuclear SSU rDNA sequences was utilized to infer the phylogenetic relationships of representatives of the macrolichen families Cladoniaceae, Sphaerophoraceae, and Stereocaulaceae (Lecanorales subord. Cladoniineae, Ascomycotina). Farris’ parsimony jackknifing, and a similar jackknife strategy with branch-swapping and multiple addition sequences in PAUP*, were performed to assess branch support. The results indicate that the Sphaerophoraceae should be emended to include Neophyllis (formerly Cladoniaceae or Stereocaulaceae) and Austropeltum (formerly Stereocaulaceae), and it is suggested that the type of boundary tissue present is a synapomorphy for the family. The families Sphaerophoraceae and Bacidiaceae form a clade, together with Psora decipiens, Tephromela atra and Scoliciosporum umbrinum. The Cladoniaceae should be emended to include Pilophorus, and the genera Metus, Cladia and Heterodea should also be included in the family. The sometimes-recognized families Cladiaceae and Heterodeaceae are shown to be derived from within Cladoniaceae. The Stereocaulaceae is recircumscribed to accommodate Stereocaulon only. Neither the possession of podetia/ pseudopodetia, a dimorphic, cladoniiform thallus, nor the presence of cephalodia, is a morphological synapomorphy for a monophyletic group in our analysis. Optimising ascus structures onto one of the most parsimonious trees suggest that tube-like apical structures may well be primitive characteristics within the Lecanorales. The two lecanoralean suborders Lecanorineae and Cladonineae are both paraphyletic groups in the present analysis. It is pointed out that if further studies confirm that Stereocaulon is the sister-group to the Cladoniaceae, as circumscribed here, then there may be no reason to accept the two families Cladoniaceae and Stereocaulaceae as distinct. Branch-swapping and several random-addition sequencesimprove resolution, adding several supported groups in the topology, and improve support values for groups already supported by parsimony jackkniring analyses, and we suggest a procedure for implementing this by using PAUP*