Hostname: page-component-745bb68f8f-l4dxg Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-01-11T07:17:08.101Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Studying American Legal Culture: An Assessment of Survey Evidence

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 January 1977

Austin Sarat
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

This paper argues that American legal culture, specifically the complex of public attitudes toward our major legal institutions and values, is truly democratic. The most persistent, although often unexplained, theme in that complex of attitudes is the demand for equal treatment. Americans endorse the ideals of equal treatment and believe that the most glaring defect of the present legal system is its failure to provide such treatment. Yet, as de Tocqueville noted, our ideas of equality are often incomplete; the demand for equal treatment appears to be a demand for equality between oneself and those now accorded preferential treatment rather than a demand that those less favored be treated as well as oneself. Evidence in support of the argument is gathered from survey studies of public attitudes toward the police, lawyers, and courts as well as of their attitudes toward crime, punishment, and civil liberties.

Type
Research Article
Information
Law & Society Review , Volume 11 , Issue 3 , Winter 1977 , pp. 427 - 488
Copyright
Copyright © 1977 The Law and Society Association

Footnotes

For their encouragement and help I would like to thank Professors Richard Abel, Larry Baum, Marc Galanter, Sheldon Goldman, Joel Grossman, and Stanton Wheeler. Financial assistance was provided by an Amherst College Faculty Research Grant.

References

ABEL-SMITH, Brian, Michael, ZANDER and Rosalind, BROOKE (1973) Legal Problems and the Citizen. London: Heinemann.Google Scholar
ADAMANY, David (1973) “Legitimacy, Realigning Elections and the Supreme Court, [1973] Wisconsin Law Review 790.Google Scholar
ADELSON, Joseph, Bernard, GREEN and O'NEAL, Robert (1969) “The Development of the Idea of Law in Adolescence,” 1 Journal of Developmental Psychology 27.Google Scholar
ALBRECHT, Stan (1974) “Cognitive Barriers to Equal Justice before the Law,” unpublished manuscript, on file with the author.Google Scholar
ALMOND, Gabriel and Sidney, VERBA (1965) The Civic Culture. Boston: Little, Brown.Google Scholar
BARTH, Thomas (1968) “Perceptions and Acceptance of Supreme Court Decisions at the State and Local Level,” 17 Journal of Public Law 308.Google Scholar
BARTON, Allen and Saul, MENDLOVITZ (1956) “The Court and the Community,” unpublished manuscript, on file with the author.Google Scholar
BAYLEY, David and Harold, MENDELSOHN (1969) Minorities and the Police. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
BERKOWITZ, Leonard and Nigel, WALKER (1967) “Laws and Moral Judgments,” 30 Sociometry 410.Google Scholar
BLACK, Donald (1973) “The Mobilization of Law,” 2 Journal of Legal Studies 125.Google Scholar
BLASHFIELD, Albert (1954) “A Summary of Public Opinion about Lawyers,” 33 Michigan State Bar Journal 30.Google Scholar
BLOCK, Richard (1970) “Support for Civil Liberties and Support for the Police,” 13 American Behavioral Scientist 781.Google Scholar
BLOCK, Richard (1971) “Fear of Crime and Fear of the Police,” 19 Social Problems 91.Google Scholar
BLUM, Walter and Harry, KALVEN (1956) “The Art of Opinion Research: A Lawyer's Appraisal of an Emerging Science,” 24 University of Chicago Law Review 1.Google Scholar
BLUMENTHAL, Monica, KAHN, Robert, ANDREWS, Frank and Kendra, HEAD (1972) Justifying Violence. Ann Arbor: Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan.Google Scholar
BOGGS, Sarah (1971) “Formal and Informal Crime Control,” 12 Sociological Quarterly 319.Google Scholar
BOGGS, Sarah and John, GALLIHER (1975) “Evaluating the Police: A Comparison of Black Street and Household Respondents,” 22 Social Problems 393.Google Scholar
BOUMA, David (1969) Kids and Cops. Grand Rapids: Erdmans.Google Scholar
BROWN, Don (1971) Youth and the Law. Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of Political Science, University of Wisconsin, Madison.Google Scholar
BROWN, Don (1974) “Adolescent Attitudes and Lawful Behavior,” 38 Public Opinion Quarterly 98.Google Scholar
BUREAU OF SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH (1967) Report of a Pilot Study in the District of Columbia on Victimization and Attitudes toward Law Enforcement. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office.Google Scholar
CALIFORNIA ASSEMBLY COMMITTEE ON CRIMINAL PROCEDURE (1968) Deterrent Effects of Criminal Sanctions. Sacramento: California Assembly Committee on Criminal Procedure.Google Scholar
CARLIN, Jerome, Jan, HOWARD and Sheldon, MESSINGER (1967) Civil Justice and the Poor. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.Google Scholar
CARRATURA, Daniel and Clayton, HARTJEN (1974) “Attitudes toward Crime and Punishment,” unpublished manuscript, on file with the author.Google Scholar
CASEY, Gregory (1974) “The Supreme Court and Myth,” 8 Law and Society Review 385.Google Scholar
CASEY, Gregory (1975) “The Theory of Presidential Association,” 19 American Journal of Political Science 19.10.2307/2110690CrossRefGoogle Scholar
CASEY, Gregory (1976) “Public Perceptions of Supreme Court Rulings,” 14 American Politics Quarterly 3.Google Scholar
CHEVIGNY, Paul (1969) Police Power. New York: Random House.Google Scholar
COHEN, Carl (1971), Democracy. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
COHEN, Julius, Reginald, ROBSON and Alan, BATES (1955) Parental Authority: The Community and the Law. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press.Google Scholar
COLOMBOTOS, John (1969) “Physicians and Medicare,” 34 American Sociological Review 318.Google Scholar
CONKLIN, John (1971) “Criminal Environment and Support for Law,” 6 Law & Society Review 249.Google Scholar
CONVERSE, Philip (1970) “Attitudes and Non-Attitudes,” in Tufte, Edward (ed.), Quantitative Analysis of Social Problems. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley.Google Scholar
COOPERSMITH, Stanley (1971) Student Attitudes toward Authority, Law and Police. Davis, California: Institute of Governmental Affairs, University of California.Google Scholar
CORTESE, Charles (1966) “A Study in Knowledge and Attitudes toward the Law,” 3 Rocky Mountain Social Science Quarterly 192.Google Scholar
CURRAN, Barbara and Francis, SPALDING (1974) The Legal Needs of the Public. Chicago: American Bar Association and American Bar Foundation.Google Scholar
DAHL, Robert (1960) Who Governs? New Haven: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
DANIELS, William (1973) “The Supreme Court and Its Publics,” 37 Albany Law Review 632.Google Scholar
DENNIS, Jack (1975) “Mass Public Support for the U.S. Supreme Court.” Presented at the 30th Annual Conference of the American Association for Public Opinion Research, Itasca, Illinois (September).Google Scholar
DEVINE, Donald (1972) The Political Culture of the United States. Boston: Little, Brown.Google Scholar
DOLBEARE, Kenneth (1967) “The Public Views the Supreme Court,” in Jacob, Herbert (ed.) Law, Politics and the Federal Courts. Boston: Little, Brown.Google Scholar
DOLBEARE, Kenneth and Philip, HAMMOND (1968) “The Political Party Basis of Attitudes toward the Supreme Court,” 32 Public Opinion Quarterly 16.Google Scholar
EASTON, David (1965) A Systems Analysis of Political Life. New York: John Wiley.Google Scholar
EASTON, David and Jack, DENNIS (1969) Children in the Political System. New York: McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
EHRLICH, Howard (1969) “Attitudes, Behavior and the Intervening Variable,” 4 American Sociologist 29.Google Scholar
EHRLICH, Thomas (1976) “Legal Pollution,” New York Times Magazine 19 (February 8).Google Scholar
EHRMANN, Henry (1976) Comparative Legal Cultures. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall.Google Scholar
EMERSON, Thomas (1966) Toward a General Theory of the First Amendment. New York: Random House.Google Scholar
ENGSTROM, Richard (1970) “Race and Compliance,” 3 Polity 100.Google Scholar
ENGSTROM, Richard and Michael, GILES (1972) “Expectations and Images: A Note on Diffuse Support for Legal Institutions,” 6 Law and Society Review 631.Google Scholar
ENNIS, Philip (1967) Criminal Victimization in the United States. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office.Google Scholar
ERSKINE, Hazel (1970a) “The Polls: Capital Punishment,” 34 Public Opinion Quarterly 290.Google Scholar
ERSKINE, Hazel (1970b) “The Polls: Freedom of Speech,” 34 Public Opinion Quarterly 483.Google Scholar
ERSKINE, Hazel (1974a) “The Polls; Fear of Violence and Crime,” 38 Public Opinion Quarterly 131.Google Scholar
ERSKINE, Hazel (1974b) “The Polls: Causes of Crime,” 38 Public Opinion Quarterly 288.Google Scholar
ERSKINE, Hazel (1974c) “The Polls: Politics and Law and Order,” 38 Public Opinion Quarterly 623.Google Scholar
ERSKINE, Hazel and Richard, SIEGEL (1975) “Civil Liberties and the American Public,” 31 Journal of Social Issues 13.Google Scholar
FLEMING, Macklin (1974) The Price of Perfect Justice. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
FOWLER, R. Booth and Joel, GROSSMAN (1974) “Law, Liberalism and Social Change,” 2 American Politics Quarterly 276.Google Scholar
FRIEDMAN, Lawrence (1967) “Legal Rules and Processes of Social Change,” 19 Stanford Law Review 786.Google Scholar
FRIEDMAN, Lawrence (1969) “Legal Culture and Social Development,” 4 Law & Society Review 29.Google Scholar
FRIEDMAN, Lawrence (1971) “The Idea of Right as a Social and Legal Concept,” 27 Journal of Social Issues 189.Google Scholar
FRIEDMAN, Lawrence (1975) The Legal System. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.Google Scholar
GALANTER, Marc (1974) “Why the ‘Haves’ Come Out Ahead: Speculations on the Limits of Legal Change,” 9 Law & Society Review 95.Google Scholar
GALANTER, Marc (1975) “Afterword: Explaining Litigation,” 9 Law & Society Review 347.Google Scholar
GALLATIN, Joseph and Joseph, ADELSON (1971) “Legal Guarantees of Individual Freedom: A Cross-National Study of the Development of Legal Thought,” 27 Journal of Social Issues 93.Google Scholar
GIBBONS, Don (1969) “Crime and Punishment: A Study in Social Attitudes,” 47 Social Forces 391.Google Scholar
GILES, Michael (1973) “Lawyers and the Supreme Court,” 35 Journal of Politics 480.Google Scholar
GREENBERG, Edward (1970) “Orientations of Black and White Children to Political Authority,” 51 Social Science Quarterly 562.Google Scholar
GROSSMAN, Joel and Austin, SARAT (1971) “Political Culture and Judicial Research,” [1971] Washington University Law Quarterly 177.Google Scholar
HAHN, Harlan (1969) “Philosophy of Law and Urban Violence,” 52 Soundings 110.Google Scholar
HALLAUER, Robert (1973) “The Shreveport Experiment in Prepaid Legal Services,” 2 Journal of Legal Studies 223.Google Scholar
HARRIS, Louis and Associates (1973) The Harris Survey (June 11 and 14).Google Scholar
HESS, Robert and Judith, TORNEY (1967) The Development of Political Attitudes in Children. Chicago: Aldine.Google Scholar
HIRSCH, Herbert and Lewis, DONOHEW (1968) “A Note on Negro-White Differences in Attitudes toward the Supreme Court,” 49 Social Science Quarterly 557.Google Scholar
HUNTING, Roger and Gloria, NEUWIRTH (1962) Who Sues in New York City. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
HYMAN, Herbert (1955) Survey Design and Analysis. Glencoe: Free Press.Google Scholar
JACKMAN Robert (1972) “Political Elites, Mass Publics and Support for Democratic Principles,” 34 Journal of Politics 753.Google Scholar
JACOB, Herbert (1969) Debtors in Court. Chicago: Rand McNally.Google Scholar
JACOB, Herbert (1971) “Black and White Perceptions of Justice in the City,” 6 Law & Society Review 69.Google Scholar
JOHNSON, Richard (1967) The Dynamics of Compliance. Evanston: Northwestern University Press.Google Scholar
KATEB, George (1974) “Imperfect Legitimacy,” in Germino, Dante and Beyme, Klaus von (eds.), The Open Society in Theory and Practice. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff.Google Scholar
KAUPEN, Wolfgang (1973) “Public Opinion of the Law in a Democratic Society,” in Podgórecki, Adam, Kaupen, Wolfgang, Houtte, J. Van, Vinke, P. and Kutchinsky, Berl (eds.), Knowledge and Opinion about Law. London: Martin Robertson.Google Scholar
KESSEL, John (1966) “Public Perceptions of the Supreme Court,” 10 Midwest Journal of Political Science 167.Google Scholar
KOEPPEN, Sheilah (1972) “Children and Compliance: A Comparative Analysis of Socialization Studies,” in Krislov, Samuel, Boyum, Keith, Clark, Jerry, Shaefer, Roger and White, Susan (eds.), Compliance and the Law. Beverly Hills: Sage Publications.Google Scholar
KOHLBERG, Lawrence and Daniel, ELFENBEIN (1975) “The Development of Moral Judgments concerning Capital Punishment,” 45 American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 614.Google Scholar
KOHLBERG, Lawrence and R., KRAMER (1969) “Continuities and Discontinuities in Childhood and Adult Moral Development,” 12 Human Development 93.Google Scholar
LA FAVE, Wayne (1965) Arrest: The Decision to Take a Suspect into Custody. Boston: Little, Brown.Google Scholar
LAWRENCE, David (1976) “Procedural Norms and Tolerance,” 70 American Political Science Review 80.Google Scholar
LERNER, Max (1937) “Constitution and Court as Symbols,” 46 Yale Law Journal 1290.Google Scholar
LEVINE, Felice and Elizabeth, PRESTON (1970) “Community Resource Orientation among Low Income Groups,” [1970] Wisconsin Law Review 80.Google Scholar
LIPSITZ, Lewis (1972) “Freedom and the Poor,” 25 Western Political Quarterly 151.Google Scholar
LUTTBEG, Norman (1974) Public Opinion and Public Policy. Homewood, Ill.: Dorsey Press.Google Scholar
MAKELA, Klaus (1966) “Public Sense of Justice and Judicial Practice,” 10 Acta Sociologica 42.Google Scholar
MAYHEW, Leon and Albert, REISS (1969) “The Social Organization of Legal Contacts,” 34 American Sociological Review 309.Google Scholar
McCLOSKEY, Herbert (1964) “Consensus and Ideology in American Politics,” 58 American Political Science Review 361.Google Scholar
McDOWELL, Gary and Rosemary, HOGAN (1975) Perceptions of the Criminal Justice System. Memphis: Institute of Government Studies and Research.Google Scholar
McINTYRE Jennie (1967) “Public Attitudes toward Crime and Law Enforcement,” 374 The Annals 34.Google Scholar
MENNINGER, Karl (1966) The Crime of Punishment. New York: The Viking Press.Google Scholar
MERRYMAN, John (1969) The Civil Law Tradition. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
MICHIGAN LAW REVIEW (1973) “Legal Knowledge of Michigan Citizens,” 71 Michigan Law Review 1463.Google Scholar
MISSOURI BAR-PRENTICE HALL (1963) A Motivational Study of Public Attitudes and Law Office Management. St. Louis: Missouri Bar.Google Scholar
MONTERO, Darrell (1975) “Support for Civil Liberties among a Cohort of High School Graduates and College Students,” 31 Journal of Social Issues 123.Google Scholar
MOSER, Claus (1969) Survey Methods in Social Investigation. London: Heinemann.Google Scholar
MUIR, William (1967) Prayer in the Public Schools. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
MURPHY, Walter and TANENHAUS, Joseph (1968) “Public Opinion and the United States Supreme Court,” 2 Law & Society Review 357.Google Scholar
MURPHY, Walter and TANENHAUS, Joseph (1974) “Explaining Diffuse Support for the United States Supreme Court,” 49 Notre Dame Lawyer 1037.Google Scholar
MURPHY, Walter and TANENHAUS, Joseph (1976) “Patterns of Public Support: A Study of the Warren and Burger Courts.” Presented at the Tenth World Congress of the International Political Science Association, Edinburgh, Scotland (August).Google Scholar
MURPHY, Walter, TANENHAUS, Joseph and KASTNER, Daniel (1973) Public Evaluations of Constitutional Courts. Sage Professional Papers in Comparative Politics 4, 01-0145. Beverly Hills: Sage Publications.Google Scholar
NEWMAN, Donald (1957) “Public Attitudes toward a Form of White Collar Crime,” 4 Social Problems 228.Google Scholar
PARTINE, Robert (1966) Attitudes of Junior High Pupils toward Police Officers. Cincinnati: University of Cincinnati Press.Google Scholar
PETRICK, Michael (1968) “The Supreme Court and Authority Acceptance,” 17 Western Political Quarterly 12.Google Scholar
PODGÓRECKI, Adam, KAUPEN, Wolfgang, HOUTTE, J. VAN, VINKE, P. and Berl, KUTCHINSKY (1973) Knowledge and Opinion about Law. London: Martin Robertson.Google Scholar
PROTHRO, James and Charles, GRIGG (1960) “Fundamental Principles of Democracy,” 22 Journal of Politics 276.Google Scholar
QUINNEY, Richard (1974) Critique of the Legal Order. Boston: Little, Brown.Google Scholar
REDMOUNT, Robert (1959) “Psychological Discontinuities in the Litigation Process,” 4 Duke Law Journal 571.Google Scholar
REICH, Charles (1964) “The New Property,” 73 Yale Law Journal 733.Google Scholar
RICHARDSON, Richard, WILLIAMS, Oliver, DENYER, Thomas, WALKER, Darlene and McGAUGHEY, Skip (1972) Perspectives on the Legal Justice System. Chapel Hill: Institute for Research in Social Science.Google Scholar
ROCKWELL, Richard (1968) A Study of the Law and the Poor in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Cambridge, Mass.: Community Legal Assistance Office.Google Scholar
RODGERS, Harrell (1969) “A Case Study on the Effects of Public Opinion of the Utilization of Law in Conflict Resolution,” 7 Duquesne Law Review 558.Google Scholar
RODGERS, Harrell and Roger, HANSON (1974) “The Rule of Law and Legal Efficacy: Private Values versus General Standards,” 27 Western Political Quarterly 387.Google Scholar
RODGERS, Harrell and Edward, LEWIS (1974) “Political Support and Compliance Attitudes,” 2 American Politics Quarterly 61.Google Scholar
RODGERS, Harrell and George, TAYLOR (1970) “Pre-Adult Attitudes toward Legal Compliance,” 51 Social Science Quarterly 539.Google Scholar
George, TAYLOR (1971) “The Policeman as an Agent of Regime Legitimization,” 15 Midwest Political Science Review 72.Google Scholar
ROSE, Arnold and Arthur, PRELL (1955) “Does the Punishment Fit the Crime? A Study in Social Valuation,” 61 American Journal of Sociology 247.Google Scholar
ROSSI, Peter, Christine, ROSE and Richard, BERK (1974) “The Seriousness of Crimes: Normative Structure and Individual Differences,” 39 American Sociological Review 224.Google Scholar
RUMBLE, Wilfrid (1968) American Legal Realism. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
SARAT, Austin (1975) “Support for the Legal System: An Analysis of Knowledge, Attitudes and Behavior,” 3 American Politics Quarterly 1.Google Scholar
SARAT, Austin (1976) “Alternatives in Dispute Processing: Litigation in a Small Claims Court,” 10 Law & Society Review 341.Google Scholar
SARAT, Austin and Neil, VIDMAR (1976) “Public Opinion, the Death Penalty and the Eighth Amendment: Testing the Marshall Hypothesis,” [1976] Wisconsin Law Review 171.Google Scholar
SCHEINGOLD, Stuart (1974) The Politics of Rights. New Haven: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
SELLIN, Torstein and Marvin, WOLFGANG (1964) The Measurement of Delinquency. New York: John Wiley.Google Scholar
SHANKS, Merrill and Jack, CITRIN (1975) “The Measurement of Political Alienation.” Paper prepared for the Conference on Political Alienation, Iowa City, Iowa (January).Google Scholar
SHKLAR, Judith (1964) Legalism. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
SKOGAN, Wesley (1971) “Judicial Myth and Judicial Reality,” [19711 Washington University Law Quarterly 309.Google Scholar
SKOLNICK, Jerome (1966) Justice Without Trial: Law Enforcement in Democratic Society. New York: John Wiley.Google Scholar
SMITH, Paul and Richard, HAWKINS (1973) “Victimization, Types of Police Contact and Attitudes toward Police,” 8 Law & Society Review 135.Google Scholar
STEPHEN, Frederick and McCARTHY, Philip (1958) Sampling Opinions. New York: John Wiley.Google Scholar
STOUFFER, Samuel (1955) Communism, Conformity and Civil Liberties. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday.Google Scholar
TAPP, June and Lawrence, KOHLBERG (1971) “Developing Senses of Law and Legal Justice,” 27 Journal of Social Issues 65.Google Scholar
TAPP, June and LEVINE, Felice (1970) “Persuasion to Virtue,” 4 Law & Society Review 565.Google Scholar
TAPP, June and LEVINE, Felice (1974) “Legal Socialization: Strategies for an Ethical Legality,” 27 Stanford Law Review 1.Google Scholar
THOMAS, Charles (1974) “A Preliminary Report of a Survey of Citizen Opinions on Crime and Punishment,” unpublished paper, on file with the author.Google Scholar
THOMAS, Charles and Samuel, FOSTER (1975) “A Sociological Perspective on Public Support for Capital Punishment,” 45 American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 641.Google Scholar
THOMAS, Charles, Robin, SAGE and Samuel, FOSTER (1976) “Public Opinion on Criminal Law and Legal Sanctions: An Examination of Two Conceptual Models,” 67 Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 110.Google Scholar
TOCQUEVILLE, Alexis de (1966) Democracy in America. (Meyer, J.P. and Lerner, Max, eds.). New York: Harper & Row.Google Scholar
TORNEY, Judith (1971) “Socialization of Attitudes toward the Legal System,” 27 Journal of Social Issues 137.Google Scholar
VAN DEN HAAG, Ernst (1975) Punishing Criminals. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
VAN HOUTTE, J. and P., VINKE (1973). “Attitudes Governing the Acceptance of Legislation among Various Social Groups,” in Adam Podgórecki et al. (eds.), Knowledge and Opinion about Law. London: Martin Robertson.Google Scholar
VIDMAR, Neil (1974) “Retributive and Utilitarian Motives and Other Correlates of Canadian Attitudes toward the Death Penalty,” 15 Canadian Psychologist 337.Google Scholar
VIDMAR, Neil and Phoebe, ELLSWORTH (1974), “Public Opinion and the Death Penalty,” 26 Stanford Law Review 1245.Google Scholar
WALKER, Darlene, RICHARDSON, Richard, DENYER, Thomas, WILLIAMS, Oliver and McGAUGHEY, Skip (1972) “Contact and Support: An Empirical Assessment of Public Attitudes toward the Police and Courts,” 51 North Carolina Law Review 43.Google Scholar
WANNER, Craig (1974) “The Public Ordering of Private Relations, Part Two: Winning Civil Court Cases,” 9 Law & Society Review 293.Google Scholar
WESTIE, Frank (1965) “The American Dilemma,” 30 American Sociological Review 527.Google Scholar
WESTLEY, William (1970) Violence and the Police. Cambridge, Mass.: M.I.T. Press.Google Scholar
“What the Public Thinks of Lawyers” (1964) 25 Alabama Lawyer 192.Google Scholar
WHEELER, Stanton (1974) “Notes on Legal Indicators,” unpublished manuscript, on file with the author.Google Scholar
WILLIAMS, Martha and Jay, HALL (1972) “Knowledge of the Law in Texas,” 7 Law & Society Review 99.Google Scholar
WILSON, W. Cody (1975) “Belief in Freedom of Speech and Press,” 31 Journal of Social Issues 69.Google Scholar
ZALKIND, Sheldon, Edward, GAUGLER and Ronald, SCHWARTZ (1975) “Civil Liberties Attitudes and Personality Measures,” 31 Journal of Social Issues 77.Google Scholar
ZEITZ, Leonard (1965) “A Survey of Negro Attitudes toward Law,” 19 Rutgers Law Review 288.Google Scholar
ZELLMAN, Gail (1975) “Antidemocratic Beliefs: A Survey of Some Explanations,” 31 Journal of Social Issues 31.10.1111/j.1540-4560.1975.tb00758.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
ZELLMAN, Gail and David, SEARS (1971) “Childhood Origins of Tolerance for Dissent,” 27 Journal of Social Issues 109.Google Scholar