Natterer's bat Myotis nattereri is one of the least known European bats, using roosts inaccessible to humans and shifting to alternative roosts every few days. The characteristics of day and night roosts used by maternity colonies during summer was assessed. Roosts were located by radio-tracking. Roost sites (which may contain more than one roost) were concentrated mainly in core areas of up to 2 km2, within which roost site density ranged from 7 to 15 per km2. Day roosts included tree cavities, apices of attics, mortises in attics and in barns, soffit boxes at eaves, tops of gable walls, crevices in stone walls and a modern cavity wall. Trees comprised 67% of roost sites. Two maternity colonies each used between 21 and 31 roosts distributed across 15 to 25 roost sites. During late summer, the temperature of roosts adjacent to a roof covering averaged 22.5 °C during the day and were significantly warmer than roosts in trees, which averaged 17.3 °C. Attic mortise roosts were intermediate at 20.0 °C. The maximum ambient roost temperature in which bats remained was 32 °C and the maximum body surface temperature recorded while roosting was 37.6 °C. Thus, bats seem to require access to a large number of roosts with a range of temperatures that they can use depending on their reproductive state and energy requirements. The study colonies also exhibited high inter-annual fidelity to roosts. Attic maternity roosts used during late gestation and early lactation were reused for the same function in successive years, as were heavily timbered barns during late lactation and post-lactation. This continuing dependence upon established roosts indicates that these types of maternity roost should be given high conservation priority. Field boundaries should also be managed to maintain mature trees with cavities for potential day roosts and hedges suitable as night perches.

Amphibian skin is characterized by the presence of mucous glands, related to cutaneous breathing, reproduction and water balance, and granular glands, related to the production of toxins used in defence. In some species the granular glands can form accumulations in certain regions of the body. This is the case for inguinal macroglands of the leptodactylid frog Physalaemus nattereri, where these structures form a pair of black discs associated with deimatic behaviour. The morphology of the inguinal macroglands and their secretion were studied in this species and correlated to deimatic behaviour. The inguinal macroglands are formed from elongated granular glands that, in contrast with the granular glands of the rest of the skin, have small spherical granules with a proteinic content. In the dermis of the whole body, except for the inguinal macroglands and the inguinal region, a well-developed calcified dermal layer is observed. During deimatic behaviour these macroglands discourage a potential predator from attacking, but if visual cues are insufficient and the predator persists in the attack, a toxic secretion is eliminated in its mouth. This elimination is favoured by the absence of a calcified dermal layer in the macroglands, which makes the dermal region softer than the rest of the dorsal skin.

Substrate reaction forces (SRFs) were quantified for 502 forelimb and hindlimb contacts in two primate species, Eulemur fulvus and Lemur catta. Three individuals of each taxon were encouraged to traverse a force transducer. Reaction forces were evaluated for linear locomotion on runway and simulated arboreal substrates. Preferred gaits differed between substrates: galloping on the runway and walking on simulated arboreal substrates. Unlike vertical and fore–aft (FA) forces, mediolateral (ML) forces during linear locomotion were relatively independent of speed, which suggests balancing the centre of body mass in the coronal plane was not speed related. Since peak ML forces occasionally exceeded peak FA forces, ML forces were not of trivial importance during primate quadrupedal locomotion. Both lemurids regularly experienced lower ML peak forces during ‘arboreal’ than ‘terrestrial’ quadrupedalism, probably to minimize side-to-side fluctuations of their centre of mass over the simulated arboreal branch supports. Eulemur fulvus encountered greater ML peak forces in their forelimbs, while L. catta encountered greater hindlimb peak ML forces. Lemurids most frequently exerted medially directed peak side-to-side forces during arboreal quadrupedalism and laterally directed peak side-to-side forces during terrestrial quadrupedalism. The direction of hindlimb ML peak force, however, was less consistent than forelimb ML peak force regardless of substrate. The lemurs experienced oscillations in the direction of the forelimb and hindlimb ML force over the duration of support phase, suggesting that both pairs of limbs contributed to balance. More frequent changes in ML force direction of the hindlimb support the predominance of these limbs in keeping side-to-side balance. The results of our study suggest that ML forces warrant consideration in locomotion studies, especially when evaluating joint moments and bending regimes of long bones.

The leopard cat Prionailurus bengalensis is a relatively common, small felid ranging throughout Asia. During the past 15 years the natural history of leopard cats has been the topic of five studies; however, the mean sample size of study animals has been low ($ \bar{x}$ = 6.8, range 4–10). We report on the most comprehensive study of leopard cats to date. Between June 1999 and February 2003, 20 leopard cats (14 males and six females) were radio-collared and tracked from 3 to 20 months in Phu Khieo Wildlife Sanctuary, Thailand. Spatial organization of the leopard cats was characterized as weakly territorial with similar intrasexual range sizes and minimal seasonal variation. Mean (± SD) annual home-range (95% minimum convex polygon) size for males was 12.4 km2 (n = 1211 locations, ± 7.1, range 2.2–28.9), whereas females exhibited a mean home-range size of 14 km2 (n = 470, ± 12.2, range 4.4–37.1). Core area (50% minimum convex polygon) averaged 2.0 km2, and the mean 1-day movement was 1298 m (± 981, range 35–8653). Habitat use was generally in proportion to occurrence, and the mean activity (52%) was arrhythmic with crepuscular and nocturnal peaks. Analysis of scats indicated that murids dominated leopard cat diet.

Assessment of pinniped predation most often relies on analysis of the hard, undigested prey remains evident in faecal (scat) samples. For many prey species this method can yield valuable information on predator–prey interactions. For some genera, however, species diagnostic characteristics are lost during the process of prey digestion, thereby preventing morphological identification of fish prey species. Here, the feasibility of using faecal DNA to detect the presence of salmonids in pinniped scat samples and to distinguish reliably between sea trout Salmo trutta and Atlantic salmon S. salar was assessed. Novel salmonid mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) primers were designed to amplify 162 bp of the 16S rDNA and a 327 bp section of the cytochrome b gene. Species-specific banding patterns were obtained by digestion of the cytochrome b PCR product with the restriction endonuclease AluI, and confirmed by the species-specific amplification of the 16S rDNA fragment from Atlantic salmon. Scats collected from captive grey seals Halichoerus grypus fed on known monospecific diets used to validate the PCR-RFLP assay indicated a probability of at least 95.8% (23 of 24 faecal extracts) of detecting salmonids using DNA extracted from the scat matrix. Implemented alongside conventional prey remains analyses, this technique presents a promising new method for examining prey composition and assessing pinniped predation on salmonids.

The purpose of this study was to investigate if there was any species-specific type and structure of sleeping sites of common marmosets Callithrix jacchus and their key determinant. The study was conducted in an urban fragment of the Atlantic forest of north-eastern Brazil, where a group of common marmosets was followed for 488 h. For this purpose we used ad lib observations, performed twice a week, when the animals were entering and leaving the sleeping sites, identified potential predators of the common marmosets through interviews with local people, and identified the trees that provided them with fruit and/or exudate during the study. Five sleeping sites were identified, all invariably in the border of the native forest and the orchard. No predators of common marmosets were seen by local people or recorded during this study, and the sleeping trees were located invariably in the place where there was the highest concentration of feeding trees, regardless of its structure. There was no species-specific type and structure of sleeping places of common marmosets. The key variable defining the choice of a sleeping place was the availability and location of immediate sources of food.

Little is known of patterns of male reproductive effort and investment, and their relationship with age-related differences in male mating strategy, in mammals. In this study, the age-specific patterns of reproductive expenditure in a male marsupial, the common brushtail possum Trichosurus vulpecula were investigated. Possums were studied for two breeding seasons on Magnetic Island, north Queensland, Australia. Energy expenditure in male possums during the mating season was estimated from changes in mass taken monthly during live-trapping. Male possums lost an average of 4.2% of their mass during the main mating season from January to May, suggesting that mating and consort behaviour is energetically expensive and may constrain foraging activity. The percentage of body mass lost by individual males during the breeding season was negatively related to age; older males directed less somatic investment into reproduction than young males. Older males seemed to target their energy expenditure toward the period when oestrus synchrony was highest. The pattern of age-specific energy expenditure for reproduction in T. vulpecula differs markedly from that reported previously for male cervids, probably owing to the spatial dispersal of females leading to differences in mating strategy. The results are discussed in terms of their relevance to potential age-related differences in reproductive strategy and behaviour.

It is believed that the resemblance of many hoverflies to stinging hymenopterans is a case of Batesian mimicry, though there is little experimental evidence that it is effective in protecting them from predators. In this study the effectiveness of hoverfly mimicry was investigated for humans by presenting groups of university students and schoolchildren with a questionnaire which included pictures of stinging hymenopterans, mimetic hoverflies and dipteran controls. More people thought that the mimics would sting than either of the control flies, though fewer than those who thought that the mimics' hymenopteran models would sting. This showed that the hoverflies' mimicry worked but was not 100% effective. More people thought that the good mimics would sting than poor mimics which were black and yellow, showing that the reaction was not just due to their warning coloration. Students' identification skills were poor; only 77%, 66% and 50% were able to correctly identify wasps, bumblebees and honeybees, respectively, but even knowledgeable students were confused by mimetic hoverflies. Significantly more of the students who had been stung thought that the Hymenoptera would sting and identified Hymenoptera correctly. Students who thought a hymenopteran would sting were in turn more likely to think that its mimic would sting. This suggests that the mimicry is partly mediated by experience. However, even students who had never been stung showed the same pattern of discrimination as those who had, suggesting that information is also passed on culturally. These results suggest that mimicry is effective and might help hoverflies avoid predation by birds but, as many of the subjects said they would kill a stinging insect, this would actually increase their chances of being killed by humans.

Although many mouflon Ovis gmelini musimon populations have been introduced to continental southern and central Europe, little is known about their reproductive output. Based on post-mortem analysis of 344 harvested females, the variation in reproductive performance was investigated in three wild populations: two located in the French Alps and one in the south of France. Examination of tracts indicated a high pregnancy rate (> 80%) for females ${\ge}1.5$ years old. We found that a significant proportion of female lambs were pregnant in the Alps, c. 1 year earlier than generally reported for first reproduction in the mouflon, whereas female lambs did not conceive in the southern France population. Pregnant female lambs and yearling females always bore a single foetus. Among pregnant females ${\ge}1.5$ years old, twinning occurred less often in southern France (2.5%) than in the Alps (10.8% and 20.7%). The data required to relate body mass and reproductive output of ewes at individual level were lacking, but female lamb–ewe body mass ratio was used to test that the population with high reproductive output should have the highest ratio. As expected, the index was higher in the Alps than in southern France, suggesting between-population differences in the quality of the local environment. Differences in growth pattern and birth timing of lambs, or different tactics of maternal care could also have influenced the female lamb–ewe body mass ratio. Crossings between wild and domestic sheep during the recent history of these populations and differences in environmental conditions might have interplayed to shape age at first reproduction and twinning rates.

The primitive sheep of North Ronaldsay Island (Orkney), which feed almost exclusively on seaweed, have developed physiological features linked to that diet. The use of seaweed to feed domestic animals, attested for centuries in north-western Europe, may have appeared soon after the arrival of the first domestic herds during the 5th and 4th millennia BC. The use of isotope analysis of sheep tooth enamel as a means to investigate seaweed grazing in prehistoric times was tested. The teeth of five modern North Ronaldsay sheep were analysed for carbon (δ13C) and oxygen (δ18O) isotope ratios. Owing to differences in the δ13C of marine vs terrestrial plants, the seaweed-eating sheep have δ13C values clearly outside the range expected for terrestrial plant eaters. Results show that one group of individuals relied exclusively on seaweed throughout the year. In a second group, terrestrial plants provided about half the dietary carbon pool during the summer. In individuals relying exclusively on seaweed, the amplitude of seasonal change in the δ18O values of tooth enamel was low, possibly because of ingestion of marine water through fresh seaweed consumption. Analysis of a sheep tooth from the Neolithic site of Holm of Papa Westray (Orkney, Scotland), suggests that as early as at the beginning of the 4th millennium BC in the Orkney, seaweed contributed to the winter diet of domestic sheep.

Patterns of sequence divergence in about 1 kb of mitochondrial DNA coding for two genes (16s rRNA and cytochrome oxidase I, COI) were analysed in 13 populations of the fairy shrimp Tanymastix stagnalis from Norway, Germany, France, Italy (northern and central Italy plus insular populations from Sardinia and the Tuscan Archipelago) and Spain, and in one presumed population of Tanymastix stellae from Corsica. The latter species was originally known only from a single locality in Sardinia, which has been destroyed by urbanization; the Corsican population was referred to T. stellae by some French authors on the basis of the collection of several cysts from mud. mtDNA data revealed a very low level of genetic divergence between the presumed population of T. stellae and the other T. stagnalis populations included in the study. Our genetic findings do not support the presence of T. stellae in Corsica and are in line with previous SEM studies revealing that all species belonging to the genus Tanymastix produce cysts with identical morphology. The results indicate complex phylogeographic relationships and pronounced genetic differentiation among T. stagnalis populations. The islands of Corsica and Sardinia on the one hand and the island of Capraia (Tuscan Archipelago) on the other were probably colonized independently at different times. Genetic relationships among continental populations do not follow a clear geographical trend, indicating that geographical distance is not the main force shaping the pattern of genetic structuring of the species. Stochastic factors such as multiple and independent founder events probably contributed to the striking pattern of genetic differentiation along with subsequent local adaptation. These results agree with previously published molecular work on several groups of aquatic organisms and further support the high potential for dispersal–low gene flow paradox shown by a large array of animals living in lentic habitats.

The feeding habits of feral domestic cats Felis catus (n=264), wild cats Felis silvestris (n=22) and their hybrids (n=30) were investigated in Hungary. Cat groups were identified taxonomically by morphological and molecular methods. Diet components were identified in stomach contents and faeces collected from the recta. In each cat group, abundant small mammals were dominant in the diet (relative frequency of occurrence: feral domestic cat, 61–82%, depending on regions; wild cat, 70%; hybrid, 59%). Birds were the second most important quarry (2–7%, 16% and 20%, respectively in the three cat groups), while the contribution of hares (1–2%, 5% and 3%, respectively) and other taxa was not significant. Every cat group preyed on small-sized animals (<50 g; 89–96%, 80% and 80%, respectively), terrestrial (91–98%, 84% and 86%, respectively) and wild (71–73%, 87% and 77%, respectively) prey. Standardized trophic niche breadth was typically very narrow (BA=0.07–0.16, 0.13 and 0.17, respectively). Feral domestic cats occasionally consumed household food (2–7%) and domestic animals (4–8%). This could mean that feral domestic cats have an advantage over wild cats that are food specialists. The trophic niche overlap between cat groups was high (77–88%). Food composition and feeding habits, (weight, zonation and environmental association of consumed prey) of feral domestic cats, however, was different compared to wild cats, which indicated the possibility of partial resource partitioning. The values for hybrids were between the two groups. As well as the stable presence of feral domestic cats (mean population density, D=1.34 individuals/1000 ha) based on field live-trapping, hybrids are also present (D=0.10), leading to continuous hybridization. This can threaten the population of wild cats, which are present at a low density (D=0.17).

The kinematics of each joint of the guinea pig Cavia porcellus were studied during the locomotor cycle at increasing speed by high-speed cinefluorography. The main objective was to reveal the functional specific features of these structural elements in each dynamic phase of the cycle and also which limb joints are important during the increase of animal speed. Most of the analysed angles in C. porcellus were affected as the speed increased, both in trot and gallop. However, only a few of them were correlated with speed. There were also differences with respect to symmetrical or asymmetrical gaits. Both pairs of limbs responded differently to the increase of speed; while the forelimb joints modified the duration of their action (frequency) more than the amplitude (stride length), the hindlimbs acted inversely. The movements of the joints during the stance phase changed dramatically with speed, particularly in the hindlimb. At knee level, the flexion amplitude increases to maintain the stiffness of the leg spring, a principle previously discussed as essential for the running process. In the swing phase, inertial effects are the main constraints and, as in the stance phase, the knee joint in the swing phase is correlated with speed both during trot and gallop, confirming the major importance of this joint to increasing speed.

Carpal glands (CG) of 105 feral pigs Sus domesticus, caught in the tropical lowland rainforest in north-east Queensland, Australia, between 1999 and 2004, were investigated to examine their function in chemical communication between animals, and their histology. Female feral pigs show significantly larger CG on the right leg than on the left leg while there were no side-specific differences in males. CG on both legs were significantly larger in reproductive than in non-reproductive females, but they did not differ between pregnant and lactating females. The results suggest that CG are involved in the defensive behaviour of reproductive females but not in the identification of the mother by piglets. The area of the left CG was significantly bigger in males compared to females, but no significant difference could be shown for the CG on the right legs. CG of same-aged boars did not change significantly in size throughout the year while females showed smaller CG on the left leg in January and February suggesting that CG may be involved in intra-matriarchal group communication. Same sized and aged boars did not show any correlations between the size of the CG and the weight of their testes and the serum levels of testosterone. These results suggest that CG are not involved in advertising dominance in boars. The histological investigation of CG showed that they are active in feral pigs in the lowland rainforest, consist mainly of apocrine tissue and that their hairs may play a role in distributing secretion.

Grazing by large herbivores is well-known to influence plant communities, while much fewer studies have been carried out on grazing effects on invertebrates. In Norway, some 2.2 million sheep graze on outlying pastures during summer, most of them in the alpine zone, but no study has reported the relative impact of sheep grazing on invertebrate communities relative to other environmental factors such as the plant community and altitude. A fully replicated landscape-scale experiment (2.7 km2) was performed with no, low (25 per km2) and high (80 per km2) sheep densities in an alpine habitat of Norway (1050–1300 m a.s.l.). The increased vulnerability hypothesis (H1) predicts that the more folivorous invertebrates, the higher the grazing pressure by sheep, as large herbivore grazing may stress the plants so they are more vulnerable to insect herbivory. The increased defence hypothesis (H2) predicts increased levels of general anti-herbivore defences, and thus a lower abundance of invertebrates with increasing sheep densities. Contrary to both predictions, no evidence was found that sheep grazing affected invertebrate richness, or abundance of folivorous, predatory or detritivore invertebrates – in a community dominated by Diptera and Hemiptera. Demonstrating an effect will always be a function of sample size, but at least our study shows that other environmental variables (such as plant species richness and functional plant richness) are more important determinants than sheep grazing for the selected invertebrate groups. Our study was short-term (first year of grazing) mainly designed to test specific hypotheses related to induced plant defences; long-term effects are probably owing to the impact sheep may have on vegetation composition, primary production, litter cover and soil properties.

The soldier crab Mictyris brevidactylus breeds in winter. Large females spawned over a few days in early winter after most had decalcified their vulvar opercula. Some females spawned in their first winter, less than 1 year after settlement. The crabs probably copulate during a few days before spawning while the vulvar opercula are decalcified. During the daytime low tide in the breeding season, large males emerged and fed on the sediment surface. Females, on the other hand, made a sand roof above themselves using sand pellets from which they had sorted out food particles, and they fed while hiding under it. After the males had ceased their surface activities, they entered the sand tunnel made by the female. The roof was connected with a hollow shaft, which had been made when the crab had ascended to the surface. Before the habitat was submerged, the shaft was plugged from within with sand to form an air chamber, which suggests that the male and female descend together in the air chamber and copulate there. It is possible that the crab uses the sand roof as a visible signal to attract mates.

Casts of forelimb elements of the Cretaceous theropod dinosaur Acrocanthosaurus atokensis were manually manipulated to determine range of motion and infer function. It was found that the humerus can swing posteriorly into a horizontal position but can neither swing laterally to glenoid height nor anteriorly much beyond the glenoid. The forearm can approach but not achieve full extension and right-angle flexion. Pronation and supination are precluded by immobility of the radius relative to the ulna. Motion also seems to be restricted at the wrist. The palm faces medially, and digital movement is subtransverse. All three digits are capable of extreme hyper-extension. Digits I and II converge during flexion. Only digit III can be abducted or adducted. The limited anterior range of brachial motion infers that Acrocanthosaurus first apprehended prey orally, using the forelimb afterwards to secure its grip or deliver fatal blows. Acrocanthosaurus could only manually grasp prey that was beneath its chest, towards which it may have used its mouth to move prey. Struggling prey would have impaled itself further upon the permanently and strongly flexed first ungual. The range of motion in the forelimb of Acrocanthosaurus resembles that of Herrerasaurus and Dilophosaurus, and exceeds that of Tyrannosaurus. Acrocanthosaurus exhibits a greater manual range of motion than ornithomimid and deinonychosaurian coelurosaurs, but less at the shoulder and elbow. Coelurosaurian theropods exhibit reduced digital flexion and hyper-extension, which suggests a change in the use of the manus in coelurosaurs.

Wolf–ungulate interactions were studied in a mountainous region of the western Alps (Italy) from December 1999 to November 2002. Analysis of 848 scats of wolves Canis lupus showed that their most important prey was wild ungulates (87.2%). Cervids were the preferred prey (74.2%) and constituted predominant food items both in winter (84.2%) and summer (54.3%). Wolves preyed most intensively upon young ungulates. Presence of domestic ungulates on high-altitude pastures during summer (May–October) influenced wolf diet (summer 19.0%, winter 0.3%), but, despite the major density of domestic livestock, wolves still preferred wild ungulates. A strong trophic relationship between wolves and red deer Cervus elaphus emerged from the present study. During three winters, 177 ungulate carcasses were recorded. Excluding hunting, the most important cause of death in red deer was predation by wolves (51.5%), followed by disease and starvation (36.4%) and traffic accidents (12.1%). The majority of red deer killed were hinds (58.8%) and calves (29.4%); stag kills represented only 11.8%. For roe deer Capreolus capreolus, starvation and diseases were the lowest factor (11.5%), slightly higher than wolf predation (10.8%), while traffic accidents were the main cause of mortality (77.7%). Chamois Rupicapra rupicapra seemed to be less important than red deer and roe deer in the diet of wolves. The high susceptibility of red deer to wolf predation could be a result of the strong overlap of habitat and altitude use with the wolf, and to their more conspicuous herding.

Only a small proportion of the marine nutrients brought ashore by breeding colonial seabirds is retained in colony soils. However, means by which these marine nutrients can be dispersed to the wider terrestrial ecosystem have rarely been identified. In this study, moulted feathers from Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae (an endemic pigeon; n=9) and Gallirallus australis (an endemic flightless rail; n=3) and from a Procellaria westlandica (Westland petrel) colony were analysed for 13C and 15N enrichment. Potential diet items from both the colony and a control location were also analysed, and their contributions to the diets of H. novaeseelandiae and G. australis calculated. Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae assimilated marine N but not marine C, and showed a wide range in the significance of different diet sources. Food for most H. novaeseelandiae came from within the colony, implying minimal transport of marine nutrients to the wider terrestrial environment. All G. australis food came from within the colony, but 29–39% was from petrel tissue, or invertebrates feeding on petrel material. Thus, both H. novaeseelandiae and G. australis assimilated nutrients brought ashore by P. westlandica, but neither was shown to disperse the nutrients much beyond the petrel colony. However, birds that are now locally extinct may have dispersed marine nutrients more widely. Future research should focus on the consequences of restoring these species to petrel colonies as part of attempts to re-establish the functioning of pre-human ecosystems in New Zealand.

Distance sampling is a common and increasingly used method of estimating animal abundance in conservation and management programmes. The precision of a distance sampling survey can be estimated from the field data, but accuracy can only be evaluated by comparison with the true population size. For wild mammal populations, such opportunities are rare. The high-density badger Meles meles population at Woodchester Park in Gloucestershire, U.K. has been routinely and intensively live-trapped for the past 30 years. The estimates of abundance based on mark–recapture analyses of the live-trapping data provided a reliable baseline against which to evaluate distance sampling for a badger population. A distance sampling survey was carried out in autumn 2002 by using spotlighting along line transects. Owing to the impractical nature of spotlighting in closed habitats, such as woodland, surveys were conducted in open habitat only. A radio-tracking study provided behavioural data that were used to estimate the proportion of the population available for sampling in open habitats. This was incorporated as a multiplier into the DISTANCE analysis. The estimate of abundance from distance sampling was 76 badgers (% CV=42.2), using a multiplier based on radio-tracking data from autumn only. When the multiplier was derived from radio-tracking data from across the whole year, based on a larger sample of tracked badgers, the distance sampling abundance estimate was 77 badgers (% CV=25.9). These compared favourably to the mark–recapture estimate of 68 badgers (% C.V=7.4). The lack of precision in the distance sampling density estimate was largely owing to the inclusion of the multiplier. Distance sampling combined with data on habitat use can produce reliable estimates of badger abundance in areas of medium to high density, particularly in landscapes of primarily open habitat.