The suitability of several methods for estimating light conditions in the understorey of tropical forests, and of different sampling schedules was evaluated. Light conditions at 16 understorey sites in a Panamanian lowland forest were continuously measured for 9 mo with quantum sensors and photodiodes. Light conditions at the sites were also assessed indirectly with hemispherical fisheye photographs, plant canopy analysis, 38-mm photographs, 24-mm photographs and a spherical densiometer. Estimates from all indirect methods, except the spherical densiometer, were highly correlated with the direct measurements. Short-term direct light measurements for a day or a week also correlated with long-term light conditions. The indirect measures differed by up to c. 70% from the direct measures relative to single site measurements. Hence, the indirect methods are inadequate where single site light conditions have to be assessed accurately. However, because light conditions encountered in the understorey varied up to 13-fold, the indirect methods were found to be well suited to rank understorey light conditions among a large number of sites. The results from frequent and infrequent sampling schedules differed only slightly, suggesting that taking indirect measures at the beginning and the end of a study offers a reasonable compromise between accuracy and sampling effort.

The study of seed fate is crucial for understanding fruit-frugivore interactions. One factor that can greatly influence the fate of seeds dispersed through mammal defecation, is the dung that accompanies the seeds. Dung attracts dung beetles and rodents; the former eat and bury dung, the latter feed on seeds. In this study the fate of Micropholis guyanensis subsp. guyanensis seeds surrounded by no dung and by 5, 10 and 25 g of howler monkey dung was followed until seedling establishment. The depths at which dung beetles bury the seeds were measured, and the effect of burial depth on seedling emergence was determined. Although initial seed fates differed among treatments, the same percentage of seedlings established from seeds without faecal material, and from seeds with 5, 10 and 25 g of dung. However, a significantly higher proportion of seedlings established from buried seeds when compared to seeds that remained on the surface. The percentage of seedlings establishing in a controlled germination experiment decreased significantly with increasing burial depth. The effect of dung beetle activity should be taken into consideration when assessing the role that mammal endozoochory plays on seed dispersal ecology of tropical plants. These results provide further evidence for the emerging realization that the study of secondary seed dispersal and post-dispersal events is crucial for a more complete understanding of plant regeneration.

In 1998 a survey was made of the termites of the Leuser Ecosystem (in Sumatra, Indonesia), which includes a substantial area (c. 1 million ha) of unbroken primary rain forest. Nine sites and an altitudinal gradient were sampled. Altitude had a significant effect on species richness, which declines with even a 100-m increase in altitude. Species composition too was significantly affected by altitude. Functionally, only termites in one feeding group (II, which forage outside of their nests) were significantly affected by altitude. A mid-altitude termite species assemblage was evident. Longitude also significantly affected species composition; Macrotermitinae were numerous on the western side of the Ecosystem and Termitinae and Nasutitermitinae more numerous to the east of it. This was probably due to differences in rainfall patterns across the Ecosystem.

Features of microhabitats used by tadpoles of 17 anuran species were recorded in 16 streams in the montane meadows of the Serra do Cipó, southeastern Brazil. Month of occurrence of tadpoles, from November 1998 to February 2000 (16 months) was also recorded. The most important ecological features in differentiating tadpole species were position in the water column, time of occurrence and water depth. Tadpole species were then compared based on their microhabitat preferences, and it was tested whether phylogenetically closer species use microhabitats in a more similar way. In hylids, microhabitat use patterns were not influenced by proposed phylogenetic relationships, and many convergences in ecomorphological types may exist. On the other hand, leptodactylids may have undergone a conservative evolutionary history, as they formed a relatively homogeneous group concerning ecomorphological types and microhabitat preferences.

In a 30-ha permanent plot of tropical evergreen forest at Varagalaiar, Indian Western Ghats, all trees ≥ 30 cm girth at breast height (gbh) were examined for the presence of lianas ≥ 1 cm dbh. The plot contained 13 445 trees in 152 species and 11 200 lianas in 75 species. Twenty-eight per cent of trees supported lianas and the mean number of lianas per tree was 0.38 ± 0.72. Association analysis between lianas and trees of 16 tree families and 20 abundant tree species indicated that tree susceptibility to lianas was better pronounced at species rather than at family level. Overall, at Varagalaiar site, the aggregation of lianas followed neither Poisson nor clumped distribution. Among the four dominant tree families Dipterocarpaceae and Clusiaceae fit to the negative binomial model better than Euphorbiaceae and Meliaceae. These four families differed in their susceptibility level with 34.6% , 36.7% , 24.1% and 27.7% of trees ≥ 30 cm gbh respectively supporting lianas. At the species level, the proportion of trees with lianas was positively correlated with the mean branch free bole height of trees ≥ 30-40 and ≥ 40 cm gbh classes, and the mean number of lianas per tree was also positively correlated with the mean branch bole height of trees ≥ 30 cm gbh. Of the 16 abundant families, Euphorbiaceae contributed 31% and dominated the lower canopy, but its susceptibility to lianas was lower when compared to most other families.

Like many other palms, Iriartea deltoidea undergoes ontogenetic transitions in leaf morphology. It has been asked whether the transition to adult leaf form in Iriartea was a fixed developmental pattern or a more plastic response to changes in environmental conditions, but studies so far have not resolved the question. We re-examined the question by taking measurements on palms growing under the full range of conditions experienced in the natural environment. Using trunk height as a surrogate variable for ontogenetic stage, we found that individual palms undergo the transition to adult morphology over a wide range of heights from < 10 m to > 20 m. Palms growing in gaps undergo the transition early, whereas those growing under a closed canopy undergo the transition late. Noting this, we asked whether the transition occurred in individuals that were growing faster than a critical minimum rate, and found no correlation between growth and morphological stage. A post-hoc hypothesis, that structural support of the crown (measured as trunk diameter) could limit or delay the transition, was confirmed. Our results indicate that multiple conditions must be satisfied before the transition can be completed. The complex requirements for leaf morphogenesis in Iriartea confer an ability to respond flexibly to spatially and temporally varying environmental conditions.

Wood pieces of a heavy hardwood Neobalanocarpus heimii (King) P. S. Ashton and a light hardwood Shorea macroptera Dyer were used in decomposition experiments with termite-exclusion and control trays on the forest floor of the Pasoh Forest Reserve, West Malaysia to determine effects of wood quality on termite-mediated wood decay. Shorea macroptera had a significant loss of C in the presence of termites while Neobalanocarpus heimii showed no significant termite effect. Neobalanocarpus heimii and S. macroptera both accumulated N in the absence of termites, but S. macroptera lost it when termites were present. The C/N ratio decreased with and without termites as decay proceeded in both species. Neobalanocarpus heimii accumulated P, but S. macroptera lost it with and without termites. The C/P ratio decreased in N. heimii, but did not change in S. macroptera. Decomposition was considerably enhanced by termites in S. macroptera, but not in N. heimii, indicating that termite foraging activity was affected by the different wood qualities of the two trees. The qualities responsible for the differences and how different wood qualities affect nutrient cycling in the tropical rain forest ecosystem are discussed.

Four common fallow tree species were tested for a response to nitrogen and phosphorus fertilization. Seedlings or cuttings of Melicope glabra (Rutaceae), Macaranga gigantea (Euphorbiaceae), Persea romosa (Laureaceae), Peronema canescens (Verbenaceae) were grown in pots of a 50:50 mix of native soil and sand under 18% full sun for 18 weeks. Every 2 weeks, plants received either added N, added P, added N+P, or no added nutrients (control). Persea, a shade-tolerant species, and Macaranga, a light-demanding pioneer, improved relative growth rate with the addition of both N and P. Neither responded to N or P alone. Peronema and Melicope demonstrated luxury consumption of both N and P but did not show enhanced growth. Two of the four species tested (Persea and Melicope) were more limited by P than N. Macaranga was equally limited by both and Peronema was more limited by N. Along with previous studies, evidence for positive growth response and luxury consumption among light-demanding species suggests that P, rather than N, should limit seedling performance and may ultimately influence tree diversity in young secondary tropical forests.

Biomass content and turnover rate were estimated for a lowland wet rain forest in French Guiana. A regression model relating the biomass of a tree to its dbh (diameter at breast height) was deduced from previously published data. A power-law allometric relationship of the form AGTB = aDb was used to estimate the tree biomass, AGTB (Mg ha−1), from its dbh D (cm). Using direct measurements of tree biomass in the literature, the best-fit allometric exponent b = 2.42 (SD = 0.02) was found. The logarithm of the coefficient a was normally distributed with an average of −2.00 (SD = 0.27). This method was applied to two permanent research stations of the lowland tropical rain forest of French Guiana: the Nouragues and Piste de Saint-Elie. At the Nouragues, the biomass was estimated from trees 10 cm in diameter on two plots covering a total surface area of 22 ha and yielded an average biomass of 309 Mg ha−1 (± 32 Mg ha−1, 95% confidence interval). Spatial variability was also addressed at the Nouragues by estimating the biomass of trees ≥ 30 cm dbh over a total surface area of 82 ha. For the wet tropical forest vegetation type, an average of 284 Mg ha−1 was obtained (spatial variability ±55 Mg ha−1). Biomass turnover was evaluated at Piste de Saint-Elie from two transects (0.78 and 1 ha) on which all trees ≥5 cm in diameter were recorded and mapped twice in 10 y. Transect 1 showed a slight increase in biomass, from 245 to 260 Mg ha−1 (338 to 345 Mg ha−1 for transect 2), corresponding to a net increase of 1.9 Mg ha−1 y−1 (0.7 Mg ha−1 y−1), and the biomass ingrowth was 3.2 Mg ha−1 y−1 (2.8 Mg ha−1 y−1). These figures are discussed in the light of the natural recruitment dynamics of tropical forests.

Small mammals were trapped in four rain forest fragments (3, 8, 20 and 97 ha), in an agricultural landscape, and in comparable continuous tropical rain forest in north Queensland, Australia over 2 y. The most frequently captured species were four murid rodents. Melomys cervinipes were captured in similar numbers in both continuous and fragmented forest. This species achieves greatest abundance at forest edges and this study suggests that edges of fragments and edges of continuous forest will support similar densities. Abundance of Uromys caudimaculatus was positively correlated with size of fragment and peaked in continuous forest. This species had a home range larger than the smaller fragments and was thus disadvantaged but its ability to utilize the agricultural matrix between fragments mitigated the effect. Rattus leucopus and R. fuscipes were most abundant in fragments and continuous forest respectively but both species occurred in similar abundance in the 97-ha fragment. This suggests their population size is related to habitat rather than competitive exclusion as previously postulated. Ordination of the populations of the nine most commonly captured mammals, separated the fragment and continuous sites but placed the largest fragment closest to the continuous sites. The contrasting response of the two Rattus spp. was the primary influence on the ordination. Second in importance was Trichosurus vulpecula, a folivorous possum, which was absent from the continuous sites. The fragments may have had more nutrient-rich, pioneer tree foliage than continuous forest. Isoodon macrourus, Perameles nasuta, Antechinus godmani and Uromys hadrourus also showed positive or negative response to fragmentation. Species utilizing the matrix between forest fragments and species adapted to forest edge are advantaged by the fragmentation process whereas forest specialists tend to extinction in fragments, particularly where the home range of the animal is not many times smaller than the fragment.

The carabid beetle assemblage found feeding on fig fruit falls at night was studied in a terra firme rain forest near Manaus (Amazonia) from July 1991 to August 1996. A total of 8926 carabid beetles were collected on 64 fruit falls from 10 fig species. The most abundant genus was Notiobia with eight species, N. pseudolimbipennis being the most abundant. The Notiobia species comprised 92% of all specimens collected and all feed on small fig seeds. Their species abundance patterns varied considerably between individual fruit falls and during the course of a single fruit fall. However, the species abundance patterns for all Notiobia at all observed fruit falls for each of the two commonest fig species (Ficus subapiculata, F. guianensis), as well as for fruit falls of the remaining fig species, were very similar. Through feeding and breeding experiments and observations of reproductive success by dissection of females, only two of the eight Notiobia species were found to be specialized fig seed feeders, being able to reproduce only on fig fruit falls. The remaining six species of this genus use fig fruit falls as alternate hosts or ‘stepping stones’ between fruit falls of their host trees, which are widely separated both in time and space.

Understanding the pattern in which adult drosophilids of different species are distributed across and within different vegetation types is necessary for accurate interpretation of their local ecology and diversity. Such studies have been conducted mainly in temperate regions, and there is no basis for extrapolating their conclusions to tropical areas. This study describes the vertical distribution (0-20 m) of drosophilids attracted to banana baits in five different vegetation types in subtropical eastern Australia including open woodland, and rain-forest types. The distribution of most of the 15 common species could be characterized three-dimensionally by vegetation type and height above forest floor. Only one species, Scaptodrosophila lativittata, was common in all vegetation types and it was a canopy species in rain forests and a ground-level species in open woodland. Vertical distribution of some species clearly matched that of their larval hosts, but it did not in others. For example, the fungivore Leucophenga scutellata was mostly trapped well above the forest floor, yet it breeds at ground level, suggesting behavioural mode can influence vertical distributions. We conclude that the vertical dimension, although still poorly understood in relation to drosophilid habitats, needs to be taken into account when conducting and interpreting studies aimed at understanding drosophilid populations and communities in the subtropics.

The study presented here investigated the importance of environmental heterogeneity and clumping for the mesoscale distribution patterns of five palm species in old-growth Andean forest (Maquipucuna, Ecuador). Seedlings, juveniles and adults were recorded in 167 plots located throughout the 3-km × 3-km study area. Mountain (Cerro Sosa or Cerro Sta. Lucia), altitude, aspect, topographic-edaphic conditions and forest structure were also recorded. The following questions were investigated: (1) Are the distributions related to environmental heterogeneity? (2) Are the distribution patterns consistent with severe recruitment limitation? The distribution patterns of four species were related to environmental heterogeneity, especially to that created by the mountainous landscape itself, and at least four of the five species also exhibited strong clumping that was clearly linked to spatially restricted recruitment and could not be explained by the environmental parameters. Thus, both niche specialization and recruitment limitation probably play important roles in Andean palm community ecology. Consistent differences among the two mountains in forest structure and the frequency of certain palm stages most likely reflected extractivism.

Phytotelmata habitats have been the focus of much research and are utilized by a wide variety of taxa. In the past 15 years numerous studies in many geographic regions and covering various types of phytotelmata have greatly increased our understanding of these unique habitats. The most recent summary of phytotelmata inhabitants included over 20 families of insects. A review of the literature and extensive work in lowland Ecuador shows the family level diversity is in fact at least twice that reported earlier. A reassessment of previous phytotelmata classification schemes, as well as an extensive bibliography, is provided.

Although acacias are ecologically and economically important, their demography is poorly known. In part this is because few field experiments have been undertaken. Also, a bewildering diversity of factors have been suggested to determine their demography. These factors include disease, fire, large and small browsers and grazers, climatic variation, competition with grass, seed predation and anthropogenic impacts. This synthesis concentrates on the life-history period from seed to adult plant and indicates that important hurdles have been demonstrated for some species in some habitats. Seed and seedling limitation have not been clearly demonstrated, nor has the value of dispersal been quantified. In contrast, the impacts of herbivores and fire in affecting the escape or release of resprouts has been repeatedly demonstrated. Whether fire and herbivory merely slow down the rate of promotion through size-classes or actually prevent it, needs further work. We note that very little comparative work amongst Acacia species has taken place. Most studies have concentrated on single aspects of their life history (especially seed predation), and have not been analysed in relation to population growth. Few field experiments, especially concerning seedling biology, have been performed. We conclude with some suggestions of a framework for interpreting acacia demography.

Geometroid moth abundance, species richness, weather and plant phenology were monitored monthly for 3 y in the lowland dipterocarp forest at Pasoh Forest Reserve, Negeri Sembilan in Malaysia. The intensity of tree flowering in the previous month (with mass events triggered in response to El Niño Southern Oscillations) was an important environmental factor positively correlated with the numbers of species and individuals of geometroid moths that emerge in any month. Abundance for geometroid moths was greater in months with high flowering and flushing in the previous month but low flowering in the month before that. Important weather parameters that influenced moth abundance were monthly rainfall, relative humidity and minimum temperature in previous months. High rainfall 3 mo previously led to an increase in moth abundance (perhaps by stimulating an increase in fresh plant material), whereas high rainfall and relative humidity thereafter served to decrease abundance, possibly by encouraging the spread and activity of pathogens: all these factors impacted on early life-stage survivorship. Similar trends were observed for individual geometroid families and subfamilies. The diversity measurement for the geometroid moths, α from the log-series, was correlated more with weather parameters than with tree phenology.

The poor availability of suitable substrate and nutrients strongly limits the distribution and growth of vascular epiphytes in lowland rain forests (Benzing 1990, Nieder et al. 2000). In some epiphyte species nutrition may be assisted by adventitious roots that grow into animal debris in plant cavities such as domatia and bromeliad tanks (Huxley 1980). For epiphyte species lacking these modifications, animals may nevertheless play a substantial role by providing a large proportion of the limited substrate in lowland forests (Catling 1995, Longino 1986). Such associations between epiphytes and nutrient/substrate-providing animals may often be non-specific and commensalistic (Davidson & Epstein 1989, Longino 1986), while highly evolved mutualistic associations occur in the case of ant gardens which are very abundant in neotropical forests (Huxley 1980, Kleinfeldt 1986, Ule 1901). Ant gardens typically are densely inhabited by different epiphytes from various plant families whose seeds or fruits are attractive to the ants and carried into the nest (Davidson 1988). In addition, ants have been suggested to play a role in protection and nutrition of ant-garden epiphytes (Kleinfeldt 1978, 1986). Ants may benefit from epiphytes through increased nest stability (Yu 1994) or nutrition via extrafloral nectaries, fruit pulps or seed arils (Davidson 1988, Kleinfeldt 1986). In this study,we compare the nutrient quality of such ant gardens with other similar substrates rarely inhabited by epiphytes, namely nests and galleries of ants and termites.

Floral trait correlations were compared between the two flower morphs of a distylous Ophiorrhiza napoensis population in a subtropical evergreen forest at the Defu Natural Animal Preserve, Guangxi, China. Common principal component analyses indicated that overall patterns in correlations among floral traits were morph specific in the study population. Strong positive correlations (r > 0.9) between anther height and corolla-tube length were found in both morphs. Stigma height correlated positively with corolla-tube length in the long-styled morph (r = 0.843), but not in the short-styled morph (r = −0.018). Flower-morph-specific correlation suggests that natural selection by pollinators has moulded trait covariance among floral traits. Because morph-specific correlations are expressed as the patterns of within-morph variation among multiple traits, putative genes responsible for the stigma-corolla tube correlation should not link to the supergene for sex-organ reciprocity between the morphs, but their expression is limited in the long-styled morph.

Results of a 3-y study on the populations of three evergreen woody species (Byrsonima crassifolia, Palicourea rigida and Bowdichia virgilioides), from a regularly burnt savanna, in Venezuela, are reported. Tree density, size structure, fruit-seed production per tree of different size classes and soil seed bank were estimated. Viable seed production was one order of magnitude higher in B. crassifolia, which was also the only species with a permanent soil seed bank. Seeds of B. virgilioides germinated readily after dispersal, whilst seeds of P. rigida showed an innate dormancy synchronously released after a year. Both of the latter species seemed to maximize the first growth season by germinating at the beginning of the favourable season. In B. crassifolia, germination proceeds with an early small burst of germination, possibly followed by a second peak at the beginning of the next rainy season and little or no germination thereafter. The results showed that despite the high fire frequency, the studied species produce a substantial number of viable propagules, and have the capacity to germinate in field conditions (readiness depending on the species). Sexual reproduction is expected, therefore, to play an important role, as suggested by their reproductive investment, in long-term population maintenance.

The vertical stratification of bat communities in primary forests of the Central Amazon (80 km north of Manaus, Brazil) was investigated using capture nets in the canopy (17 to 30 m high) and in the understorey (from 0-2.5 m). Seventeen sites were sampled during one year (3398.5 mistnet-hours) and 936 individuals captured, belonging to 6 families, 29 genera and 51 species. Utilizing Non-Metric Multidimensional Scaling (NMMDS), a well-marked vertical stratification between the communities was verified, the canopy being the more utilized region. Fifteen species were exclusively captured in the canopy, 10 were predominantly captured in the canopy, and 12 species were exclus ively captured in ground nets. Species recorded and the communities they form were analysed using a matrix of guilds. The matrix obtained had 24 cells. A guild composed by background cluttered/gleaning frugivores was the richest in species (19), followed by background cluttered/gleaning insectivores (12 species). The results illustrate that when studying tropical forests it is highly desirable to involve both the lower and the upper part of the forests; otherwise the fauna would be merely subsampled, thus under-estimating the status and abundance of some species.