Category rule learning was examined in two amnesic patients using the perceptual categorization task (e.g., Ashby & Gott, 1988; Filoteo & Maddox, 1999). Traditional accuracy-based analyses as well as quantitative model-based analyses were performed. Unlike accuracy-based analyses, the model-based approach allowed us to examine both categorization rule learning and variability in the trial-by-trial application of the participant's categorization rule. The results indicated that the amnesic patients were as accurate as the controls in learning a complex, nonlinear rule over a large number of trials. The model-based analysis indicated that, in general, the amnesic patients learned the categorization rule as well as controls and applied their rule as consistently as controls. Categorization performance on a second day of testing revealed that amnesic patients can retain the categorization rule over a 24-h period. These results suggest that the brain regions damaged in amnesia are not involved in category learning or memory for the category structures. (JINS, 2001, 7, 1–19.)

While language facility was once considered to be the sole province of the “dominant” left hemisphere, clinical and experimental findings suggest the right hemisphere plays an equally important role in many language tasks. To elucidate differential hemispheric language processes, Right Hemisphere Language Battery and Western Aphasia Battery data from left (LHD) and right (RHD) hemisphere cerebral vascular accident (CVA) patients and controls were subjected to multivariate discriminant analysis. The highly significant group differences and overall 95% classification rate obtained confirms the utility of the dependent measures in differential diagnosis. Results suggest CVA patients experience disparate language deficits, with the LHD group experiencing concordant-convergent language deficits and the RHD group displaying discordant–divergent deficits that interfere with the receptive and expressive language skills necessary for successful social discourse. (JINS, 2001, 7, 655–664.)

Inhibition of return is a bias in attention that reduces the likelihood of returning attention to previously viewed locations. This attention bias develops during the first 6 months of life and is putatively mediated by midbrain structures. The present study evaluated the effects of perinatal lesions on the development of inhibition of return. Thirty-three children with perinatal injury resulting in spastic diplegic cerebral palsy were grouped based on magnetic resonance exams. Children with anterior (n = 5), posterior (n = 12), diffuse (n = 8), or no apparent (n = 8) lesions were compared with a group of age-matched children without neurologic injury (n = 39) on an orienting task designed to elicit inhibition of return. Short-delay trials demonstrated grossly intact facilitation of attention for all groups. Long-delay trials that produced inhibition of return in the control and posterior injury groups indicated a disruption of inhibition of return in the groups with anterior and diffuse lesions. The findings are consistent with previous reports that anterior regions are important for the developing attention system, and that bilateral injury can result in unilateral disruption of visual attention. (JINS, 2001, 7, 275–284.)

This study examined the distinction between identification and production processes in repetition priming for 16 patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD) and 16 healthy old control participants (NC). Words were read in three study phases. In three test phases, participants (1) reread studied words, along with unstudied words, in a word-naming task (identification priming); (2) completed 3-letter stems of studied and unstudied words into words in a word-stem completion task (production priming); and (3) answered yes or no to having read studied and unstudied words in a recognition task (explicit memory). Explicit memory and word-stem completion priming were impaired in the AD group compared to the NC group. After correcting for baseline slowing, word-naming priming magnitude did not differ between the groups. The results suggest that the distinction between production and identification processes has promise for explaining the pattern of preservation and failure of repetition priming in AD. (JINS, 2001, 7, 785–794.)

The relative insensitivity of traditional IQ tests to mild cognitive deficits has led investigators to develop a version of the widely used Wechsler intelligence scales that allows quantitative analysis of underlying qualitative responses. This instrument, the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale–Revised as a Neuropsychological Instrument (WAIS–R NI) was administered to 16 Parkinson's disease (PD) patients and 30 normal controls (NC). The 2 groups did not differ significantly in mean age or education, or on their mean Mattis Dementia Rating Scale score. Relative to NC participants, PD patients showed decreased visual attention span, longer response latencies, slower visuomotor processing, and more stimulus-bound errors. Many of the WAIS–R NI measures were able to detect cognitive impairment in a greater percentage of patients than the traditional WAIS–R measures, making it easier to identify deficits that could affect quality of life early in the course of the disease. (JINS, 2001, 7, 535–543.)

Recent research has demonstrated deficits on effortful executive tasks involving planning in multiple sclerosis (MS) patients. Given the high prevalence of depression in MS and the commonly reported link between depression and performance on executive tasks, planning impairments in MS may be associated with depression. We compared the performance of depressed and nondepressed MS patients on a planning task (Tower of London–TOL) to evaluate this hypothesis. Compared with nondepressed MS patients, depressed MS patients made significantly (p < .05) more moves and took more time per trial on the TOL. A follow-up regression analysis was conducted that included the TOL and speeded attentional/working memory task indices found to be associated with depression in MS from the authors' prior reports. This analysis revealed that 25% of the variance in depression scores was predicted by the most sensitive speeded attentional/working memory task. Furthermore, this variance overlapped completely with variance predicted by the TOL–time/trial index. The only clearly nonspeeded task index, TOL–moves per trial, was associated with unique variance (8%) in predicting MS depression scores. These results suggest that slowed information processing speed and, secondarily, deficient nonspeeded central executive skill, may be core to the cognitive deficits characteristic of depressed MS patients. (JINS, 2001, 7, 665–674.)

We evaluated auditory working memory in 41 HIV-seropositive (HIV+) and 37 HIV-seronegative (HIV−) male drug users, employing a modified version of the Letter-Number Span Task developed by Gold and colleagues. We added a control condition to the standard task in order to evaluate more directly the contribution of the processing component to the working memory deficits with the effects of storage demands minimized. HIV+ subjects performed significantly more poorly compared to controls on an index of working memory processing derived from raw scores obtained under the two testing conditions. These findings are consistent with our previous reports that HIV-related working memory deficits are evident across multiple informational domains; further, the deficit appears to involve multiple-component functions of working memory. Converging findings from recent working memory studies and from primate and neuroimaging investigations suggest that functional abnormalities of prefrontal cortex should receive greater emphasis in models of neurocognitive aspects of HIV-1 infection, which have typically emphasized “subcortical” deficits. (JINS, 2001, 7, 20–26.)

Cognitive impairments are among the most frequently reported and least investigated components of the chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS). As part of a multifaceted study of the CFS, the present study investigated the cognitive functioning of chronic fatigue patients. The performance of 20 CFS patients was compared to that of controls (N = 20) on 4 tests of working memory (WM). Digit Span Forward was used to assess the storage capacity of WM. Multiple aspects of central executive functioning were assessed using several standard measures: Digit Span Backward, and Trails A and Trails B. More recently developed measures of WM were used to assess control of processing under temporal demands (working memory task) and resistance to interference (a sustained attention task). Deficits were restricted to more demanding tasks, requiring resistance to interference and efficient switching between processing routines. The overall results clearly implicate deficits in the control aspects of central executive function in CFS. (JINS, 2001, 7, 285–293.)

Word-list verbal learning and memory tests with appropriate normative data can be highly sensitive to cognitive decline, but there are significant limitations of such tests available for use with older Hispanic and non-Hispanic people living in the US. The purpose of this study was to (1) create a new word-list learning and memory test in both English and Spanish and, (2) validate it with respect to sensitivity to cognitive impairment, and (3) develop statistical corrections for the effects of significant demographic variables, including ethnicity, language of administration, age, education, and gender. A community dwelling sample of 801 English- and Spanish-speaking older people was employed. Recall on learning trials and the delayed recall trial of the word-list learning test were strongly related to the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE), moderately related to age, and weakly related to gender and education. The relationship of word-list variables and the MMSE did not significantly differ across ethnicity/language groups. Regression coefficients for demographic variables were used in a statistical correction formula to adjust raw word-list scores, and then to develop specific percentile cut-off values. (JINS, 2001, 7, 544–555.)

Severe diffuse traumatic brain injury (TBI) may impair the performance of daily-life complex activities. The aim of the present study was to assess whether these difficulties are related to a representational impairment of action knowledge. Two tasks requiring the manipulation of scripts were used. The first (script reconstitution) required subjects to sort cards describing actions belonging to 4 different scripts, presented in a random order. The second (script generation) required subjects to generate actions belonging to a given script. The results showed that TBI patients had preserved access to goal representation and action knowledge. However, they demonstrated (1) significant impairments when they had to deal with simultaneous competing sources of information and (2) a lack of inhibitory control on routine overlearned skills. Patients' performance was significantly correlated with behavioral modifications in everyday life. These data suggest that action impairment in severe TBI patients cannot be attributed to an impairment of action knowledge per se. As previously suggested by Schwartz et al., a restriction of limited-capacity processing resources may account for the observed deficits. (JINS, 2001, 7, 795–804.)

This study examined the treatment outcome of high-dose (1500 mg/day) zidovudine (AZT) on neuropsychological (NP) functioning (Trailmaking Test A & B, WAIS-R Digit Symbol, and Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test) across a 12-month period in mildly symptomatic HIV-1 seropositive men (n = 46 at entry) enrolled in a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial (VA Cooperative Studies Program #298). Neither short-term (0–6 months) nor long-term (0–12 months) AZT administration revealed enhancement in NP performance. The results suggest that, although AZT may afford patients prophylactic benefits, protracted high-dose AZT treatment does not improve NP functioning in mildly symptomatic HIV-positive individuals. (JINS, 2001, 7, 27–32)

Lesch-Nyhan disease (LND) is a rare, X-linked genetic disorder that involves the nearly complete absence of an enzyme (hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase, or HPRT) that is essential for purine salvage. In addition to hyperuricemia, all patients with classic LND suffer from movement disorder and compulsive self-injury, and most have mental retardation. Patients with partial HPRT deficiency (variants) always have hyperuricemia and often have neurologic abnormalities, but do not self-injure and usually are described as having normal intelligence. Here we compare 15 patients with LND to 9 variants and 13 normal adolescents and adults. Testing revealed unambiguous and qualitatively similar cognitive deficits in both patient groups. The variants produced scores that were intermediate between those of patients with LND and normal participants on nearly every cognitive measure. We discuss these findings in terms of what is known about the neuropathology of LND. (JINS, 2001, 7, 805–812.)

Visuospatial processing is accomplished in distinct neuroanatomic pathways. One such pathway, known as the where pathway, involves a dorsal route through magnocellular thalamic cells to occipital and parietal cortices and conveys location and motion information. A second pathway, known as the what pathway, involves a ventral route through parvocellular thalamic cells to occipital and temporal cortices and conveys color and form information. The where pathway is thought to be responsible for processing spatial relationships while the what pathway is responsible for object identification. Children with early-treated congenital hypothyroidism (CH) who exhibit selective visuospatial deficits may provide a good model to study the differential development of these pathways. Because children with CH lacked thyroid hormone at a time when needed by developing brain regions such as the parietal cortex, these children may be affected to a greater degree on tasks tapping where but not what pathway processing. We tested this hypothesis via retrospective analysis of their performance on 6 spatial tasks. Compared were 49 adolescents with CH and 49 matched control participants. On the basis of confirmatory factor analysis, tasks were assigned to either where or what pathway groupings. A repeated measures ANOVA showed the CH group was impaired relative to a normal comparison group only on where pathway tasks. Regression analyses indicated that severity of early hypothyroidism was the strongest predictor of where pathway processing but had no effect on what pathway tasks. It is concluded that thyroid hormone is required during late gestation and early life for the normal development of the where aspects of visuospatial processing. (JINS, 2001, 7, 556–562.)

This study compared the ability of clinical and ecologic simulation measures to predict performance on environment-specific criterion measures of wayfinding. Thirty-one unilateral stroke participants comprised the right and left hemisphere groups (16 patients with left sided and 15 patients with right sided strokes). Participants completed a battery of clinical tasks (e.g., traditional paper-and-pencil measures of visualization, mental rotation, visual memory and spatial orientation), ecologic simulations (e.g., slide route recall and visualization of a model town from differing perspectives) and environment specific criterion tasks (e.g., route recall and directional orientation). The groups were equivalent in age, sex, education, handedness, and weeks since stroke. Both ecologic simulation tasks were found to have fairly good internal consistency and 1 simulation task was significantly related to real world wayfinding. Of the clinical tasks, 1 visual memory test was correlated with a directional orientation criterion task, but none correlated with route navigation ability. Results are consistent with literature purporting the benefits of ecologic simulation tasks as predictors of real world functioning. (JINS, 2001, 7, 675–682.)