¹ Dorosh, Paul A. et al. , Macroeconomic Adjustment and the Poor: the case of Madagascar (Ithaca, NY, 1990),Google Scholar and Hewitt, Adrian, ‘Madagascar’ in Duncan, Alex and Howell, John (eds.), Structural Adjustment and the African Farmer (London and Portsmouth, NH, 1992), pp. 86–112.Google Scholar

² These are the explanations put forward by Pryor, Frederic L., The Political Economy of Poverty, Equity, and Growth: Malawi and Madagascar (Oxford, 1990),Google Scholar and Covell, Maureen, Madagascar: politics, economics and society (London and New York, 1987), respectively.Google Scholar

³ The suspicion with which many Malagasy regard the World Bank stems partly from the latter's endorsement of this planning, investment, and borrowing exercise and subsequent rapid and strong repudiation of the programme once the ideological winds in the institution shifted.Google Scholar See World Bank, Madagascar: recent economic developments and future prospects (Washington, DC, 1979)Google Scholar and Madagascar: agricultural and rural development sector memorandum, (Washington, DC, 1983).Google Scholar

⁴ Ministry of Agriculture and Agrarian Reform (MPARA) and Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), Projet recensement national de l' agriculture et système permanent des statistiques agricoles (Antananarivo, 1988), Vols. 1–5.Google Scholar

⁵ Ibid.

⁶ Szal, loc. cit. p. 744.

⁷ Ibid. and Dorosh et al. op. cit.

⁸ World Bank, op. cit. 1983 and 1991.

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¹² International Monetary Fund, ‘Staff Report for the 1990 Article IV Consultation’, Washington, DC, 1991, p. 4.

¹³ Not all Madagascar's bureaucrats are hostile to reforms, but many (perhaps most) seem to harbour reservations if not open resistance. By way of contrast, there is solid evidence that in a number of other countries, including The Gambia, Ghana, and Tanzania, segments of the bureaucracy have been early converts to, sometimes even champions of, liberalisation efforts. See, for example, Mosley, Paul et al. , Aid and Power: the World Bank and policy-based lending (London, 1991), Vols. 1 and 2;Google ScholarRadelet, Steven, ‘Reform Without Revolt: the political economy of economic reform in The Gambia’, in World Development (Oxford), 20, 8, 1992, pp. 1087–99;Google Scholar and Herbst, Jeffrey I., The Politics of Reform in Ghana, 1982–1991 (Berkeley, CA, 1993).Google Scholar

¹⁴ Ljunggren, Börje, ‘Market Economies Under Communist Regimes: reform in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia’, Harvard Institute for International Development, Cambridge, MA, Discussion Paper No. 394, 1991.Google Scholar

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²² Ghana and Senegal were the only other African countries to receive gross disbursements from the IMF in each year during 1980–1991.Google Scholar

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²⁴ After a revised constitution had been approved in a national referendum in August 1992 lost the presidential election to Professor Albert Zafy in February 1993, and a new representative national assembly under the leadership of Francisque Ravony, the Prime Minister, began the Third Republic in August 1993. Madagascar's peaceful transition to democratic rule has drawn praise and support from several Western observers and governments.Google Scholar

²⁵ Mosley et al. op. cit.

²⁶ See Hyden, Goran and Karlstrom, Bo, ‘Structural Adjustment as a Policy Process: the case of Tanzania’, in World Development, 21, 9, 1993, pp. 1395–1404.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

²⁷ Dorosh et al. op. cit.

²⁸ The World Bank was only just disbursing its first adjustment credit to Madagascar, an industrial sectoral loan, at the end of this period.Google Scholar

²⁹ Andriamirado, Sennen, ‘Scénario pour un départ en douceur’, in Jeune Afrique (Paris), 1597, 1991, pp. 4–6.Google Scholar

³⁰ World Bank, Agricultural and Rural Development Sector Memorandum, p. iii.Google Scholar

³¹ Ibid.; AIRD, ‘Étude du secteur rizicole: rapport final’, Antananarivo, 1984; Berg, Elliot, ‘The Liberalization of Rice Marketing in Madagascar’, in World Development, 17, 5, 1989, pp. 719–28;CrossRefGoogle Scholar Abt Associates, ‘The Rural Marketing System in Madagascar’, Antananarivo, 1991; and Azam, Jean-Paul et al. , ‘Études du marché du riz à Madagascar’, Antananarivo, 1993.Google Scholar

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³³ Berg, loc. cit. p. 720.

³⁴ World Bank, Agricultural and Rural Development Sector Memorandum.Google Scholar

³⁵ Rakotoniriana, T., ‘Transformation of Agrarian Systems: Madagascar’, Workshop on the Transformation of Agrarian Systems in Centrally-Planned Economies in Africa, Arusha, Tanzania, 1983.Google Scholar

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³⁹ Berg, loc. cit.

⁴⁰ Azam et al. op. cit., and Kristjanson, Patricia and Martin, Jerry, ‘More Than Free Markets are Needed’, in Choices (Ames, IA), 1991, pp. 19–21.Google Scholar

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⁴⁴ Berg, loc. cit., and Rassas, Bechir, Rabenarivo, Charles, and Meserve, Lawrence, ‘Evaluation of the Food for Progress Rice Program in Madagascar’, report prepared for US AID-Madagascar, Antananarivo, 1988. These data originate with the official Banque des donnés de l'état and must be treated cautiously as indicators of entry and liberalisation since they represent mainly official registration by longstanding operators. While traders previously incurred risks if they formally competed with public enterprises, suddenly those who failed to register faced the greatest consequences. Survey data of food marketing intermediaries in one major agricultural zone, the Vakinankaratra, do not support the hypothesis of massive entry into collection or milling.Google Scholar See Barrett, Christopher B., ‘Peasants, Prices and Markets in Madagascar: toward an understanding of agricultural supply response to liberalization in a smallholder economy’, Ph.D. dissertation, University of Wisconsin–Madison, 1994.Google Scholar

⁴⁵ Barrett, op. cit.

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⁵¹ Szal, loc. cit. p. 749.

⁵² Pryor, The Political Economy of Poverty, Equity, and Growth, p. 322.Google Scholar

⁵³ When discussing road conditions, a surprising number of local officials invoke the words of the early nineteenth century Merina king, Radama I: ‘If I make roads, the white man will only come and take my country. I have two allies: forest (hazo) and fever (tazo).’ The enemies may have changed, but the strategy remains.Google Scholar

⁵⁴ World Bank, Madagascar: beyond stabilization to sustainable growth (Washington, DC, 1991), p. 51.Google Scholar

⁵⁵ World Bank, Strategy for Agricultural Growth.Google Scholar

⁵⁶ World Bank, Republic of Madagascar Rural Road Sub-Sector Strategy (Washington, DC, 1991), p. 5.Google Scholar

⁵⁷ Ibid. p. 2.

⁵⁸ Other African countries provide parallel histories of reluctance, followed by energetic liberalisation, followed by reversion. See, for example, Barrett, Christopher B., ‘Saharan Perestroika: economic revolution in Algeria’, in Journal of Third World Studies (Columbus, GA), 7, 2, 1990, pp. 173–203.Google Scholar