1. All Biblical citations are taken from the King James Version.

2. Williams, Roger, The Bloudy Tenent of Persecution, for the Cause of Conscience, Discussed in a Conference Between Truth and Peace (Groves, Richard ed., Mercer U. Press 2001)Google Scholar. A good introduction to Williams' thought, with excellent bibliography, is Gaustad, Edwin, Liberty of Conscience: Roger Williams in America (Eerdmans 1991)Google Scholar. See also Hall, Timothy, Separating Church and State: Roger Williams and Religious Liberty (U. Ill. Press 1998)Google Scholar.

3. For President Bush's own account of these projects, see Bush, George W., Speech, Remarks at the White House Faith-based and Community Initiatives Leadership Conference, (D.C., 03 1, 2005)Google Scholar, in 41 Weekly Compilation of Presidential Documents 332 (forthcoming 2007) (available at http://www.gpoaccess.gov/wcomp/v41no09.html). For a more critical view see Davis, Derek, President Bush's Office of Faith-Based and Community Initiatives: Boon or Boondoggle?, 43 J. Church & St. 411 (Summer 2001)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

4. Acts 17:6.

5. Hilberg, Raul, The Destruction of the European Jews (rev. ed., Holmes & Meier 1985)Google Scholar. See also Dalin, David G., How High the Wall? American Jews and the Church-State Debate, 49 Conservative Judaism 63 (1997)Google Scholar. Blumoff, Theodore Y., The Holocaust and Public Discourse, 11 J.L. & Relig. 591 (1995)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

6. Neuhaus, Richard John, The Naked Public Square: Religion and Democracy in America (Eerdmans 1984)Google Scholar.

7. Lemon v. Kurtzman 403 U.S. 602, 612-613 (1971).

8. See Comm. For Pub. Educ. & Religious Liberty v. Regan, 444 U.S. 646, 671 (1980) (Stevens, J. dissenting) (describing the majority's interpretation of Lemon as a “Sisyphean task.”).

9. Neuhaus, supra n. 6. Neuhaus has a continuing column in the journal First Things which tracks many of these themes as they emerge in new ways in American society.

10. Winthrop, John, A Model of Christian Charity, 1 The Annals of America 1493-1754, at 109–115 (Adler, Mortimer ed., Ency. Britannica 1968)Google Scholar.

11. Bellah, Robert, Flaws in the Protestant Code: Some Religious Sources of America's Troubles, 7 Ethical Persp. 288 (2000)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. But see Davis, James Calvin, A Return to Civility: Roger Williams and Public Discourse in America, 43 J. Church & St. 689, 702–703 (2001)Google Scholar. See generally Bremer, Frances, John Winthrop: America's Forgotten Founding Father (Oxford U. Press 2003)Google Scholar.

12. Locke's, JohnLetter Concerning Toleration was first published in 1689Google Scholar. For useful critical essays, see John Locke, A Letter Concerning Toleration, In Focus (Morton, John & Mendus, Susan eds., Routledge 1991)Google Scholar. Compare Mouw, Richard, John Locke's Christian Individualism, 8 Faith & Phil. 448 (1991)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Little, David, Conscience, Theology, and the First Amendment, 72 Soundings 357 (1989)Google Scholar; with Perry, John, Locke's Accidental Church: The Letter Concerning Toleration and the Church's Witness to the State, 47 J. Church & St. 269 (2005)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

13. Howard, Guy, The Political Theory of the Huguenots of the Dispersion, With Special Reference to the Thought and Influence of Pierre Jurieu (Colum. U. Press 1947)Google Scholar. Turchetti, Mario, Religious Concord and Political Tolerance in Sixteenth and Seventeenth Century France, 22 Sixteenth Cen. J. 15–25 (1991)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

14. An excellent historical introduction to this period in France is Holt, Mack, The French Wars of Religion, 1562-1629 (Cambridge U. Press 1995)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For the view shared by many historians today, that the Edict is but one in a series of attempts to reach a settlement both Protestant and Catholic could live with, and so “console a troubled France,” see Bost, Hubert, L'Edit de Nantes, Lectures d'hier et d'aujourd'hui, 73, no. 3Theologiques et Religieuses 371–390 (1998)Google Scholar. Other important works include Perry, Elisabeth Israels, From Theology to History: French Religious Controversy and the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes (Martinus Nijhoff 1973)Google Scholar; Johnston, Charles, Elie Benoist, Historian of the Edict of Nantes, 55 Church History 468 (1986)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Hudson, Elizabeth K., The Protestant Struggle for Survival in Early Bourbon France: The Case of the Huguenot Schools, 76 Archiv fur Reformationsgeschichte 271 (1985)Google Scholar; Margolf, Diane, Adjudicating Memory: Law and Religious Difference in Early Seventeenth-Century France, 27 Sixteenth Cent. J. 399 (1996)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

15. Temple, William, Christianity and Social Order 47 (SCM Press 1942)Google Scholar; Torke, James, The English Religious Establishment, 12 J.L. & Relig. 399 (1996)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

16. Thomas Helwys (1560-1616), an early Baptist, was a Separatist who emigrated from England to Amsterdam in 1608. Helwys, Thomas, A Short Declaration of The Mystery of Iniquity (Groves, Richard ed., Mercer U. Press 1998)Google Scholar (defending the separation of church and state). Estep, William R. Jr., Thomas Helwys: Bold Architect of Baptist Policy on Church-State Relations, 20, no. 3Baptist History & Heritage 24 (07 1985)Google Scholar. The “foolish debate” about the decline of established Christianity in England has in fact been a spirited and valuable discussion among sociologists of religion. See Davie, Grace, Religion in England since 1945: Believing Without Belonging (Blackwell 1994)Google Scholar.

17. The Schleitheim Confession, 1527, in 2 Creeds and Confessions of Faith in the Christian Tradition 696–703 (Pelikan, Jaroslav & Hotchkiss, Valerie eds., Yale U. Press 2003)Google Scholar.

18. Sattler was arrested and executed for his “radical” views in 1527. See generally The Legacy of Michael Sattler (Yoder, John Howard ed. & trans., Herald Press 1973)Google Scholar; Winter, Sean, Michael Sattler and the Schleitheim Articles: A Study in the Background to the First Anabaptist Confession of Faith, 34 Baptist Q. 52 (1991)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Biesecker-Mast, Gerald, Anabaptist Separation and Arguments against the Sword in the Schleitheim Brotherly Union, 74 Mennonite Q. Rev. 381 (2000)Google Scholar.

19. Referred to as Landholder VII, Oliver Ellsworth wrote against religious tests in 1787. Ellsworth, Oliver, Art. 6, Cl. 3, Doc. 14, in The Founders' Constitution Vol. 4, 639 (Kurkland, Philip B. & Lerner, Ralph eds., U. Chi. Press 1987)Google Scholar. See generally Casto, William, Oliver Ellsworth's Calvinism: A Biographical Essay on Religion and Political Psychology in the Early Republic, 36 J. Church & St. 507 (1994)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

20. The Thirty-Nine Articles, 1571, in supra, n. 17, at 526-540.

21. Knox, John, The Buke of Discipline, in 2 The Works of John Knox 183–260 (Laing, David ed., AMS Press Inc. 1966)Google Scholar.

22. The Westminster Confession of Faith, 1647, in supra n. 17, at 601-649.

23. Knox, John, The Appellation to the Nobility and Estates of Scotland, 1558, in 4 The Works of John Knox 467–520 (Laing, David ed., AMS Press Inc. 1966)Google Scholar.

24. Kyle, Richard, John Knox: A Man of the Old Testament, 54 Westminster Theological J. 65 (1992)Google Scholar (describing Knox's approach to the Hebrew scriptures); see also Greaves, Richard L., John Knox and the Covenant Tradition, 24 J. Ecclesiastical History 23 (1973)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See generally Reid, W. Stanford, John Knox's Theology of Political Government, 19 Sixteenth Cent. J. 529 (1988)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Kyle, Richard, The Christian Commonwealth: John Knox's Vision for Scotland, 16 J. Religious History 247 (1991)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

25. Fox, Margaret Fell, Womens Speaking Justified (William Andrews Clark Memi. Lib., U. Cal. 1979) (originally published 1667)Google Scholar.

26. John Knox, The First Blast of the Trumpet Against The Monstrous Regiment of Women, in supra n. 23, at 349-422.

27. Woolman, John, Considerations on Slavery, in The Journal of John Woolman 25–42 (Whitney, Janet ed., Henry Regnery 1950)Google Scholar.

28. See Penn, William, No Cross, No Crown: A Discourse Showing the Nature and Discipline of the Holy Cross of Christ, in The Papers of William Penn 295–296 (Dunn, Richard S., Dunn, Mary Mapleset al. eds., U. Penn. Press 1981)Google Scholar; see also Kunze, Bonnelyn Young, Religious Authority and Social Status in Seventeenth-Century England: The Friendship of Margaret Fell, George Fox, and William Penn, 57 Church History 170 (1988)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Emmerich, Charles J. & Adams, Arlin, William Penn and the American Heritage of Religious Liberty, 8 J.L. & Relig. 57 (1990)Google Scholar; Barbour, Hugh, William Penn, Model of Protestant Liberalism, 48 Church History 156 (1979)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

29. Singer, Isaac Bashevis, Gimpel the Fool, in The Collected Short Stories of Isaac Bashevis Singer 3 (Bellow, Saul trans., Farrar, Straus & Giroux 1982)Google Scholar (suggesting that God might play jokes of this sort on us).

30. Dignitatis Humanae, in The Gospel of Peace and Justice: Catholic Social Teaching since Pope John ¶ 2, 339 (Gremillion, Joseph ed., Orbis 1976Google Scholar) (footnote omitted). Paragraph 2 states:

This Vatican Synod declares that the human person has a right to religious freedom. This freedom means that all men are to be immune from coercion on the part of individuals or of social groups and of any human power, in such wise that in matters religious no one is to be forced to act in a manner contrary to his own beliefs. Nor is anyone to be restrained from acting accordance with his own beliefs, whether privately or publicly, whether alone or in association with others, within due limits.

The Synod further declares that the right to religious freedom has its foundation in the very dignity of the human person, as this dignity is known through the revealed Word of God and by reason itself. This right of the human person to religious freedom is to be recognized in the constitutional law whereby society is governed. Thus it is to become a civil right.

31. Pacem in Terris, in id. at ¶ 14, 204. “Every human has the right to honor God according to the dictates of an upright conscience, and the right to profess his religion privately and publicly.”

32. For a summary of these measures, see Littell, Franklin, The Significance of the Declaration on Religion Liberty, 5, no. 2J. Ecumenical Stud. 326 (Spring 1968)Google Scholar.

33. Luke 22:19.

34. Mark 10:14.

35. Paul, Pope John II, Evangelium Vitae, ch. III, ¶ 72 (1995)Google Scholar, in The Encyclicals of John Paul II at 738 (Miller, J. Michael ed., Our Sunday Visitor 2001)Google Scholar; see Aquinas, Thomas, Summa Theologiae I–II, q. 93, a. 3, ad 2Google Scholar.

36. Paul, Pope John II, Evangelium Vitae, ch. IV, ¶ 78 (1995)Google Scholar, in id. at 742-761. (“For a New Culture of Human Life” is the name of this chapter in EV, “We are a people of life” appears on page 742.) See also the discussions of this encyclical in Choosing Life: A Dialogue on Evangelium Vitae (Wildes, Kevin & Mitchell, Alan eds., Geo. U. Press, 1997)Google Scholar; Budziszewski, J., What We Can't Not Know, 22 Human Life Rev. 85 (1996)Google Scholar.

37. Justice John Paul Stevens made this point in a rather emphatic way in a speech to the American Bar Association in 1985:

The term “founding generation” [as used by Attorney General Meese] describes a rather broad and diverse class. It includes apostles of intolerance as well as tolerance, advocates of different points of view in religion as well as politics, and great minds in Virginia and Pennsylvania as well as Massachusetts. I am not at all sure that men like James Madison, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin or the pamphleteer, Thomas Paine, would have regarded strict neutrality on the part of the Government between religion and irreligion as “bizarre.”

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38. See Smylie, James, Madison and Witherspoon: Theological Roots of American Political Thought, 73 Am. Presbyterians 153 (1995)Google Scholar (offering an interpretation of Madison's thinking about the necessity of factions, especially Madison's hope that competing factions would prevent power from being overly concentrated in one group or another). Alexis de Tocqueville's somewhat more optimistic observations about associations are also relevant to this discussion. See Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America, Bk. II, § 2, Ch. V, Of the Use Which the Americans Make of Public Associations in Civil Life. For an influential contemporary account, see Berger, Peter & Neuhaus, Richard John, To Empower People: From State to Civil Society (Am. Enter. Inst, for Pub. Policy Research 1977)Google Scholar.

39. Conway, John S., The ‘Stasi’ and the Churches: Between Coercion and Compromise in East German Protestantism, 1949-1989, 36 J. Church & St. 725 (1994)CrossRefGoogle Scholar (describing methods the East German state police used in infiltrating Christian communities for the purposes of surveillance and sowing distrust among them). See also Koenig, Richard E., The Churches and the STASI, 109 Christian Cent. 396 (1992)Google Scholar.

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41. Rotherberger, Johnson, & Lyons LLP, Jefferson to the Danbury Baptists, 1802 (available at http://www.churchstatelaw.com/historicalmaterials/8_8_5.asp (accessed Aug. 9, 2005)).

42. Treaty with the Kaskaskia, Aug. 13, 1803, 7 Stat. 78, in Indian Treaties, 1778-1883, at 67–68 (Kappler, Charles J. ed., Interland Publg. Inc. 1972)Google Scholar. See also Cord, Robert L., Separation of Church and State: Historical Fact and Current Fiction 261–263 (Lambeth Press 1982)Google Scholar.

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44. Everson v. Bd. of Educ. of Ewing Township, 330 U.S. 1, 16 (1947). See Wallace v. Jaffree, 472 U.S. 38, 92, 106-107 (1985) (Rehnquist, C.J. dissenting) (critiquing the “wall” metaphor). But see Pfeffer, Leo, The Establishment Clause: An Absolutist's Defense, 4 Notre Dame J.L. Ethics & Pub. Policy 699 (1990)Google Scholar (critiquing Rehnquist's argument). See generally Davis, Derek, Original Intent: Chief Justice Rehnquist and the Course of American Church/State Relations 94–97 (Prometheus Books 1991)Google Scholar (providing a brief discussion of Rehnquist's criticism of the “wall” metaphor).

45. Jefferson, Thomas, Elementary School Act, 1817, in The Writings of Thomas Jefferson vol. 17, 425 (meml. ed., Lipscomb & Berg 1907)Google Scholar. For a sketch of Jefferson's perspective on the eve of the Revolution, shaped by the decline of the Anglican Church in Virginia, see Peterson, Merrill D., Jefferson, Madison, and Church-State Separation, in Conceived in Conscience 34, 38–39 (Rutyna, Richard & Kuehl, John W. eds., Donning 1983)Google Scholar.

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51. 533 U.S. 98, 120 (2001).

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67. The phrase “a centerless web of beliefs” is from Visker, Rudi, The Core of My Opposition to Levinas: A Clarification for Richard Rorty, 4 Ethical Perspectives 154, PIN (1997)CrossRefGoogle Scholar (responding to a talk given by Rorty in Rorty, Richard, Justice as a Larger Loyalty, 4 Ethical Perspectives 139 (1997)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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