1 Personal communications from Fernando Belaúnde Terry to the author on 2 April and 8 May 1969.

2 References to Apra, the PAP, and the apristas throughout this article will allude to the official party position not to that of its members, unless otherwise noted. This bears mentioning at the outset for reason of the consistent difference between the political orientation of the membership and that of the policy-making hierarchy of the party. The former continues under the impression that their party is dedicated to thoroughgoing reform of the socioeconomic structures of Peruvian society, while the latter encourages this impression but frequently takes positions inimical to reforms.

3 For a representative sample of “standard” writing on aprismo, the interested reader might consult: Gunther, John, Inside South America (New York, Evanston, and London: Harper & Row, 1966), p. 337 Google Scholar; Manduley, Lyn S., “The People's Warrior,” The Inter-American 5 (November 1946): 18–20, 30-32Google Scholar; Alexander, Robert J., “Aprismo—is it Socialist?” Modern Review 1 (November 1947): 682–690 Google Scholar; Kantor, Harry, “The Aprista Search for a Program Applicable to Latin America,” Western Political Quarterly 5 (December 1952): 578–584 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Kantor, Harry, “Aprismo: Peru's Indigenous Political Theory,” The South Atlantic Quarterly 53 (January 1954): 1–9 Google Scholar; Kantor, Harry, “Las lecciones del movimiento aprista,” Panoramas, no. 17 (septiembre-octubre 1965), pp. 151-55.Google Scholar

4 Good examples of the “revised” outlook toward Apra include: Chaplin, David, “Peru's Postponed Revolution,” World Politics 20 (April 1968): 393–420 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Payne, Arnold, “Peru's Guerrilla Politics,” New Leader 48 (11 October 1965): 11–14 Google Scholar; Payne, Arnold, “Peru: Latin America's Silent Revolution,” Inter-American Economic Affairs 20 (Winter 1966): 69–78 Google Scholar; Pike, Frederick B., “The Old and the New Apra: Myth and Reality,” Inter-American Economic Affairs 18 (Autumn 1964): 3–45 Google Scholar; Pike, Frederick B., “Peru and the Quest for Reform by Compromise,” Inter-American Economic Affairs 20 (Spring 1967).Google Scholar

5 While such speculation is frequently to be found in the more recent articles cited in the previous footnote, a good specific example is Obelson, W., Funerales del APRA: el fraude electoral y fiscal (Lima: Litografía Universo, 1962).Google Scholar See also Pike, Frederick B., The Modern History of Peru (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1967).Google Scholar

6 Eugenio Chang-Rodriguez succinctly defines indigenismo as the concern for the Indian and his customs, the denunciation of the exploitation of which he is the object, and the demand for his incorporation into the social, political, and economic fabric of the nation in “Variaciones sobre el indigenismo,” La Nueva Democracia 36 (enero 1956): 96. See also Salz, Beate, “Indianismo,” Social Research 11 (November 1944): 452.Google Scholar

7 The principal works on González Prada are: Sánchez, Luis Alberto, Don Manuel: biografía de Manuel González Prada, precursor de la revolución peruana, 3^a ed. (Santiago: Ediciones Ercilla, 1937)Google Scholar; de González Prada, Adriana, Mi Manuel (Lima: Editorial Cultura Antartica S.A., 1947)Google Scholar; Chang-Rodriguez, Eugenio, La literatura política de Gonzalez Prada, Mariátegui, y Haya de la Torre (México: Ediciones de Andrea, 1957)Google Scholar; see also Crawford, William Rex, A Century of Latin American Thought, rev. ed. (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1961), pp. 173–182.Google Scholar

8 The specifically political aspects of his thought are dealt with in chapter III of Richard Lee Clinton, “Manuel González Prada: Evolution of his Political Thought,” M.A. thesis, Department of History, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, 1964.

9 Sánchez, Luis Alberto, Raúl Haya de la Torre o el político: crónica de una vida sin tregua (Santiago: Ediciones Ercilla, 1934), pp. 97–99.Google Scholar

10 Ibid., p. 108; also Chang-Rodríguez, , La literatura, p. 228.Google Scholar

11 Sánchez claims that these five points were decided upon by December 1924 (El político, p. 108), but they did not appear in print until December 1926 when Haya published an article in that month's number of The Labour Monthly.

12 de la Torre, Víctor Raúl Haya, A dónde va Indoamérica? 3^a ed. (Santiago: Biblioteca América, 1936), p. 268.Google Scholar

13 The principal works on Mariátegui are: Barzán, Armando, Biografía de José Carlos Mariátegui (Santiago: Empresa Editora Zig-Zag S.A., 1939)Google Scholar; and Weisse, María, José Carlos Mariátegui, etapas de su vida (Lima: Biblioteca Amauta, 1959).Google Scholar

14 Weisse, , Etapas, p. 157.Google Scholar

15 Beals, Carleton, “Aprismo: The Rise of Haya de la Torre,” Foreign Affairs 13 (January 1935): 236–246 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; James, Earle K., “Apra's Appeal to Latín America,” Current History 41 (October 1934): 39–44.Google Scholar

16 Delmas, Gladys, “Peru's New Politics: The Hit-or-Miss Approach,” The Reporter 29 (24 October 1963): 36.Google Scholar

17 Urbina, Alfredo Hernández, Los partidos y la crisis del APRA (Lima: Ediciones Ruiz, 1956), p. 14 Google Scholar; Enrique Chirinos Soto, Cuenta y balance de las elecciones de 1962 (Lima: Ediciones Peru, 1962), p. 110.

18 Alexander, Robert J., “Aprismo—is it Socialist?” Modern Review 1 (November 1947): 682 Google Scholar; Alexander, Robert J., “The Latin American Aprista Parties,” Political Quarterly 20 (July-September 1949): 236–247.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

19 Needier, Martin, “Peru Since the Coup D'État,” The World Today 19 (February 1963): 79–81.Google Scholar

20 Neumann, Sigmund, “Toward a Comparative Study of Political Parties,” pp. 395–416 of Neumann, Sigmund (ed.), Modern Political Parties: Approaches to Comparative Politics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1956), p. 404.Google Scholar

21 A detailed account of the happenings during these three years may be found in José Luis Bustamante i [sic] Rivero, Tres años de lucha por la democracia en el Perú (Buenos Aires: published personally, 1949).

22 Pike, , Modern History, p. 295 Google Scholar, mentions Alberto Hidalgo, Magda Portal, and Ciro Alegría. Another was Luis Eduardo Enríquez.

23 Alberto Hidalgo, Porque renuncié al APRA (1954); Magda Portal, i Quienes traicionaran al pueblo! (1948). See also Urbina, Hernández, Los partidos, pp. 53–86 Google Scholar; Enríquez, Luis Eduardo, La estafa política más grande de América (Lima: Ediciones del Pacífico, 1951)Google Scholar; César A. Guardia Mayorga, Reconstruyendo el aprismo (.exposición i refutación de la doctrina política i filosófica hayista (Arequipa: 1945); Gamio, Hernando Aguirre, Liquidación histórica del APRA y del colonialismo neoliberal (Lima: Ediciones Debate, 1962)Google Scholar; Villanueva, Víctor, La tragedia de un pueblo y un partido. 2^a ed. (Lima: Talleres Gráficos “victory”, 1956).Google Scholar

24 Inman, Samuel Guy, Latin America, Its Place in World Life, rev. ed. (New York: Harcourt, Brace & Co., 1942), p. 164.Google Scholar

25 Sánchez, Luis Alberto, “A new Interpretation of the History of America,” The Hispanic American Historical Review 23 (August 1943): 444-45.Google Scholar This point is worth making since the revised aims are frequently given as the original ones.

26 Pike, , Modern History, p. 278.Google Scholar

27 Quoted in Murkland, Harry B., “Peru's Peaceful Revolution,” Current History 9 (August 1945): 97.Google Scholar Even more explicit was Haya's statement nine years later regarding the conclusions he had reached during his five-year confinement in the Colombian Embassy in Lima: “I believe that democracy and capitalism offer the surest road toward a solution of world problems, even though capitalism still has its faults.” Víctor Raúl Haya de la Torre, “My Five-Year Exile in My Own Country,” Life, 3 May 1954, p. 164.

28 Pike, , Modern History, p. 285.Google Scholar

29 Mella, Julio Antonio, “Qué es el A.P.R.A.?” Amauta 4 (junio-julio 1930): 41.Google Scholar

30 See footnote 22, supra.

31 Soto, Chirinos, Cuento y balance, p. 89.Google Scholar

32 Bourricaud, François, Poder y sociedad en el Perú contemporáneo (Buenos Aires: Editorial Sur S.A., 1967), pp. 270–271.Google Scholar

33 Payne, Arnold, “Peru: Latin America's Silent Revolution,” Inter-American Economic Affairs 20 (Winter 1966): 75.Google Scholar

34 Needle, Martin, “Peru Since the Coup D'État,” The World Today (February 1963): 80.Google Scholar

35 Personal communications from Fernando Belaúnde Terry to the author on 2 April and 8 May 1969.

36 Andean Airmail and Peruvian Times, 12 July 1963, as reproduced in James A. Morris, “The Status and Evolution of the Peruvian Aprista Party Since 1954” (M.A. thesis, Department of Political Science, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, 1967), p. 89.

37 While a resident in Peru from March 1966 through January 1968, the author witnessed many of the instances in which aprista congressmen forced the resignation of cabinet members on the flimsiest of contrived excuses.

38 Such research would involve questions such as the following: How active are aprista cells in Indian areas? How much of Apra's budget is allocated to Indian affairs? How many aprista organizers are working among Indians? How consistently does La Tribuna, the official aprista newspaper, seek to inform the workers and the middle classes of the urgency of the Indians’ situation? How often in his recent public utterances has Haya dwelt on the indigenista theme? What pro-Indian legislation or activities has the PAP sponsored? How much of such legislation has it obstructed? Without the responses to such empirical questions, the problem of Apra's present-day stand on indigenismo cannot be resolved with finality.

39 Some insights into the increasing radicalization of the Indian masses of Peru may be gleaned from Villanueva, Víctor, Hugo Blanco y la rebelión campesina (Lima: Editorial Juan Mejía Baca, 1967).Google Scholar Also see Neira, Hugo, Cuzco: tierra y muerte (Lima: Ediciones Problemas de Hoy, 1964).Google Scholar

40 Pike, Frederick B., “Peru and the Quest for Reform by Compromise,” Inter-American Economic Affairs 20 (Spring 1967): 30.Google Scholar

41 These departments are also the most densely populated by Indians, of course, but few of them are enfranchised due to literacy requirements.

42 Beals, Carleton, “Aprismo: The Rise of Haya de la Torre,” Foreign Affairs 13 (January 1935): 241, 246.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

43 Manduley, Lyn Smith, “The People's Warrior,” Inter-American 5 (November 1946): 18.Google Scholar

44 Pike, , Modern History, pp. 264, 266, 267, 270, 275, 280, 284, 286, and passim.Google Scholar

45 Ibid., pp. 264, 267, 270,286.

46 Such instances include the attempt by Melgar Márquez on the life of President Luis M. Sánchez Cerro (6 March 1932); the assassination of Sánchez Cerro by Abelardo Mendoza Leiva (30 April 1933); the murder of the director of El Comercio, Antonio Miró Quesada, and his wife by Carlos Steer (15 May 1935); and that of the editor of La Prensa, Francisco Graña Garland, by Alfredo Tello Salavarria and Héctor Pretell Cobosmalón (7 January 1947).

47 See, for example, Enríquez, , La estafa, pp. 151-64.Google Scholar

48 See footnote 23, supra.

49 Fletcher, William G., “Aprismo Today—An Explanation and a Critique,” Inter-American Quarterly 3 (October 1941): 14–20.Google Scholar

50 See Chapter four of Anderson, Charles W., Politics and Economic Change in Latin America: The Governing of Restless Nations (Princeton, N.J., etc.: D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., 1967).Google Scholar

51 See, for instance, Ravines, Eudocio, The Yenan Way (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1951), p. 48 Google Scholar and passim.

52 Examples of this trend include Flores, Alberto Baeza, Haya de la Torre y la revolución constructiva de las Americas (Buenos Aires: Editorial Claridad, S.A., 1962)Google Scholar; del Pomar, Felipe Cossío, Haya de la Torre: el indoamericano (México: Editorial América, 1939)Google Scholar; Sánchez, Luis Alberto, Haya de la Torre y el APRA: crónica de un hombre y un partido (Santiago: Editorial del Pacifico, 1955)Google Scholar; Sánchez, El político; Villacorta, Pablo Silva, A dónde van las ideas de Haya de la Torre? (Lima: Imprenta E.R.V., 1966).Google Scholar

53 The clearest statement of this oft-repeated litany is Enríquez, La estafa, although many of the sources cited in footnote 23, supra, illustrate the point.

54 A recent first-hand account of Apra's organizational ability on the local level as well as of the way the material needs of its constituents are so frequently neglected is given by Bayer, David L., “Urban Peru—Political Action as Sellout,” Transaction 7 (November 1969): 36, 47–54.Google Scholar

55 Detailed treatments of aprista involvement in organized labor in Peru are given in Payne, James, Labor and Politics in Peru: The System of Political Bargaining (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1965)Google Scholar, and Larry Larson, “Labor, Social Change, and Politics in Peru” (Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Political Science, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, 1967).

56 del Pomar, Cossío, El indoamericano, p. 279 Google Scholar, describes the founding of the Federación Aprista Juvenil in 1934.

57 Inman, , Latin America, p. 161 Google Scholar, alludes to this aspect of Apra. The point is further elaborated by Mackay, John A., That Other America (New York: Friendship Press, 1935), pp. 111-13Google Scholar, and Mackay, John A., The Other Spanish Christ: A Study in the Spiritual History of Spain and South America (New York: The Macmillan Co., 1933), p. 197.Google Scholar

58 Browne, Malcolm W., New York Times, 3 April 1969, p. 7.Google Scholar

59 Payne, Arnold, “Peru: Latin America's Silent Revolution,” Inter-American Economic Affairs 20 (Winter 1966): 74 Google Scholar, made an insightful remark apropos this lesson: “The strange luncheon-meeting that took place one day in 1964 testifies to the utter cynicism of Peruvian politics and illustrates the new allignments [sic] of political forces in the Andean country. Around the table sat retired General Odria, Haya de la Torre, Pedro Beltrán, and Eudocio Ravines.”

60 Carey, James C., Peru and the United States, 1900-1962 (Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 1964), p. 146.Google Scholar

61 For a perceptive, first-hand description of Peru's present government see José Y glesias, “Report from Peru: The Reformers in Brass Hats,” New York Times Magazine, 14 December, 1969, pp. 58-59, 128-135, 137, 140, 142.