Measurement of geometry, motion, and mass balance from Variegated Glacier, Alaska portray conditions in this surge-type glacier close to the mid-point of its 20 year surge cycle. Comparison of longitudinal profiles of ice depth, surface slope, and surface speed indicate that the motion occurs largely by internal deformation assuming the ice deforms according to the experimental law of Glen. Surface speed is not noticeably affected by local surface slope on the scale of the ice thickness or smaller, but correlates well with slope determined on a longitudinal averaging scale about one order of magnitude larger than the ice depth. The rate of motion on Variegated Glacier agrees well with rates on non-surge type temperate glaciers which have similar depth and slope. Although the (low regime at the time of the measurements is apparently typical of temperate glaciers, a large discrepancy between the balance flux needed for steady state and the actual flux is indicative of a rapidly changing surface elevation profile and internal stress distribution.

The origin and nature of radio-echo internal reflections is the subject of much debate. Calculations of single- and multiple-layer reflection coefficients for dielectric changes in the ice sheet indicate that the observed reflection strength may result from reflections from many thin layers but the zone of thin layers may best be approximated by replacing the zone with a single thicker layer with average dielectric properties. Calculation of reflections from density changes, dust and dirt bands and anisotropy of ϵ indicate density variations as the most likely cause of the internal layering in the uppermost kilometer of ice sheets. Comparison of the depth of internal reflections at “Byrd” station, Antarctica, with the physical properties of the ice measured in a deep core hole at that location support this conclusion.

The continuity relationship that is often used in the study of ice sheets and ice shelves is developed by integrating the equation of continuity through the ice thickness. This equation is then integrated again with respect to horizontal distance from an ice divide, showing that the difference between the true ice velocity and the balance velocity, which is defined, is a measure of the time chance of the mass of a column through the ice thickness.

The relationship is applied using data from along the “Byrd” station strain network, Antarctica. This region is found to be thinning slowly (0.03 m a−1 of ice of mean density) and uniformly, but it is still close to steady-state. The calculations would show a larger thinning rate if bottom sliding contributed more to the ice movement and integral shear contributed less, but the “Byrd” station bore-hole tilting results of Garfield and Ueda (1975, 1976), together with surface velocity measurements at “Byrd” station, indicate that most of the ice flow is by deformation within the ice mass. This large amount of internal deformation is more than that predicted by most “flow laws”, probably because of the strongly oriented ice-crystal fabric in the ice sheet. The cause of ice thinning is probably decreased surface mass balance beginning before A.D. 1550.

The consistent relationship between measured velocity and balance velocity indicates that the ice flow is simple and that flow lines are in the same direction at depth as at the surface when considered smoothed over a distance of 10 km. Because the ice sheet is at present thinning, the balance velocity, calculated only from flow line and surface mass-balance data, and the somewhat mistaken assumption of steady-state is 15% less than the true ice velocity. This rather small difference confirms the use of balance-velocity estimates where velocity measurements are not available.

A three-dimensional model of the temperature and velocity distribution within any arbitrary-shaped ice mass is described. There is a mutual interaction in the model between the flow of the ice and its thermodynamics, since the flow law used in the model is temperature-dependent.

Ice growth in three dimensions is governed by mass accumulation through precipitation, by mass depletion through loss of ice over the ocean, and by continuity requirements. Phase changes at the base of the ice are accounted for. The model has been applied in art exploratory manner to the Greenland ice sheet. Changes in the ice shape and temperature are presented and discussed. The basic shortcoming of the model as here presented appears primarily due to the coarse finite-difference mesh used, and to an unsophisticated approach to modelling the boundary ice.

Radiative transfer theory is formulated to permit a meaningful definition of emissivity for bulk emitting media such as snow. The emissivity in the Rayleigh-Jeans approximation is then the microwave brightness temperature TB divided by an effective physical temperature 〈T〉. The 〈T〉 is an average of the physical temperature, T(z), weighted by a radiative transfer function ƒ(z). Similarly,

where e(z) is the local emittance. An approximate ƒ(z) is used to determine analytically the effects of various absorption coefficients, of scattering coefficients that vary with depth, and of the seasonal variation of T(z). It is shown that a mean emissivity, which is equal to the mean annual TB divided by the mean annual surface temperature Tm, is a useful quantity for comparing theory and observations. Snow-crystal size measurements, r(z), at seven locations in Greenland and Antarctica are used to determine the Mie/Rayleigh scattering coefficient γs(z) and to calculate the mean emissivities. The observed mean emissivities are determined by a which is the average of 12 monthly Nimbus-5 (1.55 cm) microwave observations, and the Tm measured at the same locations. The calculated emissivities are about one-half of the observed values. The assumption that each snow crystal is an independent and equally effective scatterer, and the use of an approximation to ƒ(z), tend to over-estimate the effect of scattering. Therefore, a parameter multiplying γs(z) is used. The emissivities calculated with a single value of this empirical parameter for all seven locations agree well with the observed emissivities, showing that the microwave emissivity variations of dry polar urn can be characterised as a function of the crystal sizes. One optical depth corresponds to a typical fini depth of 5 m, but significant radiation emanates from up to 30 m. Since r(z) depends on the snow accumulation rate A and Tm. the sensitivity of the emissivity to changes in Tm or A are estimated using this semi-empirical theory. The results show that a one degree change or uncertainty in Tm is approximately equivalent to a 10% change in A, and that such a change will affect the emissivity by 0.003 to 0.014 or the TB by about 0.6 K to 3 K, depending on the location.

Electrical resistivity measurements were made along two perpendicular profiles on the Ross Ice Shelf, Antarctica, in 1973–74. Apparent resistivities are generally well determined at electrode separations from 10 m out to 600 m, where the effect of the highly conducting sea-water beneath the shelf becomes strongly fell. Schlumberger and equatorial-dipole data are in excellent agreement on each profile; apparent resistivities on the two profiles, however, differ by about 12% at separations greater than about 30 m. This apparent anisotropy is attributed to a presumed inhomogeneity at a few tens of meters depth, rather than to true anisotropy in the bulk resistivity.

A computer program has been developed to calculate apparent resistivities on an ice shelf in which the density and temperature, and thus the resistivity, vary continuously with depth. Temperatures have been calculated according to the analysis of Crary (1961 [b]) for a steady-state ice shelf; densities have been calculated from seismic velocity data. Several different models of the dependence of resistivity on density have been tested—one appears to fit the observations very closely, but it must be accepted only with great caution because the assumptions on which it is based are violated in the ice shelf.

The activation energy and the rate of bottom melting or freezing upon which the temperature-depth variations depend have been treated as variable parameters in the modeling. The most satisfactory model corresponds to a melt/freeze rate close to zero, and an activation energy, 0.25 eV (24 kJ mol−1), in agreement with laboratory measurements on Antarctic ice samples, although less than that suggested by previous field measurements. However, since the actual temperatures in the ice shelf are unknown, models that combine a substantial melt rate with a higher activation energy, or a substantial freeze rate with a lower activation energy, cannot be ruled out at present. Future measurements in places where the temperature profile is known should resolve this uncertainty.

The actual resistivity in the solid ice at a depth of about 100 m (temperature about —23°C), lies within ±10% of 70000 Ω m, thus once again confirming the very low resistivities typical of polar glacial ice. The resistivity is, in fact, only about half that found near Roosevelt Island to the north and “Byrd” station to the east. That difference is believed to be real, but its cause is not known and probably will not be known until the basic cause for the generally low resistivity of polar ice is better understood.

Thermal drilling and deep ice-temperature measurements along a flow line in a surge area of the Barnes Ice Cap, Baffin Island, N.W.T., Canada revealed a layer of basal temperate ice 30 m thick. Marginal areas were determined to be frozen to bedrock and geothermal heat flow estimated to be 1.02 μcal/cm2s (42 mW/m2).

A radio-echo sounder has been built with which both the amplitude and phase of radio echoes can be measured. In experiments with this instrument at the Devon Island ice cap, in the Canadian Northern Territories, precise amplitude and phase measurements have been made upon radio echoes from the bed of the ice cap. If these measurements are repeated after a number of years, the results, considered in conjunction with snow accumulation and compaction data, will be interpretable as a long-term change in the thickness of the ice cap. Wave dislocations and bend points have been observed in radio echoes reflected from the bed, It is suggested that amplitude and phase measurements from a network of sites may be synthesized in order to explore the geometry of the reflecting surface on a fine scale.

An approximate, analytic solution is found for the profile of a water-free crevasse in a field of closely spaced crevasses. The depth of penetration of the crevasses into the glacier is found. If the fracture strength of ice is taken to be zero, the penetration depth is equal to the value found by Nye and is independent of the crevasse spacing. This conclusion is in disagreement with results reported recently by R.A. Smith. If the fracture strength of ice is taken to be finite, the penetration depth is reduced if the spacing between crevasses is reduced.

The results of the analysis can be applied to other crack problems. In particular, it can be applied to thermal, secondary cracking that it is hoped occurs when cooling fluid flows through the cracks created by hydraulic fracture for the purpose of extracting geothermal heat from hot, dry rock masses.

Ice samples representing at least some twenty years' accumulation, have been collected from a crevasse wall at 3 200 m (Glacier du Mont de Lans, Massif de l'Oisans), with a view to studying the behaviour of soluble and insoluble impurities in temperate ice. The stratification of the ice from the surface to 2 m and the disappearance of this stratification below 2 m are attributed to a variation in the glacier regime on both sides of the equilibrium line, rather than to a variation in the conditions of deposit of solid debris on the glacier surface, the strata do not necessarily correspond to an annual accumulation. Mineralogical analysis of the solid particles has allowed us to demonstrate two kinds of deposit: that consisting of the local Alpine material (hornblende) and that consisting of a mixture of local material and red sand of Saharan origin (anatase). A study of the distribution of major cations (Na, K, Mg, Ca) along a profile has revealed the existence of a process of leaching which follows an exponential law to a first approximation. The leaching produces a rapid evolution in the chemical properties of the ice compared with those of the original precipitation.

Analysis of wind-speed measurements made over a six-month period on an Antarctic glacier showed that conditions near the surface were dominated by gravity winds flowing downhill. In such conditions there is no satisfactory method of calculating the amount of energy exchanged between the glacier and the atmosphere. It is also difficult to extrapolate satisfactorily energy changes measured at a single point to the whole glacier. Moreover the loss of five days’ meteorological records may cause an error as large as the total change in energy content of the glacier during a year. In view of these difficulties it is more fruitful to measure the changes in energy content of the glacier directly. This can be done by accurate measurements of ice temperature and density near the surface. By defining the total energy content of a glacier as the heat required to melt it, fractional changes in the energy content and mass occurring over a year are equal and indicate the probable lifetime of the glacier. Estimates based on data from an Antarctic glacier suggest that the long-term change of energy of the glacier (≈ 1.5 W/m2) could be measured with an accuracy of 10% within a year.

Three glaciers in Switzerland, Griesgletscher, Oberaargletscher and Vadrec da l’Albigna, terminate in lakes recently impounded for hydro-electricity generation. Calving at their snouts has produced excellent cross-sections which enable one to study the structures along almost complete vertical profiles when the lakes are empty. Each of the glacier cliffs displays a shallow synclinal structure which, by comparison with surface structures, is interpreted as the vertical expression of an arcuate foliation, originating in or below an ice fall or an area of transverse crevassing. Extensive minor folding of an earlier layering is associated with this foliation. Well-developed longitudinal foliation exposed at the surface is sometimes visible in these vertical sections, indicating that the structure can form at depth.

The Gara Glacier, a north-facing valley glacier situated in the western Himalaya, was selected to be part of the study undertaken by India in connection with the International Hydrological Decade. This paper deals with the procedure adopted and the results obtained for mass-balance assessment over a period of one year between September 1974 and September 1975. The glacier has recorded a positive net balance of the order of 2.48 X 106 m3 in terms of water equivalent.

The retreat of glaciers since 1927 in Cordillera Blanca has produced dangerous lakes at the front of many glaciers. All the known data, most of them unpublished, are reviewed. The known aluviones are listed, and those of Chavin, Quebrada Los Cedros and Artesoncocha described in full. In these three cases a breach in the front moraine came from big ice falls into the lake. The protective devices made on the outlets are described, as well as the effects of the big earthquake on 31 May 1970. In the case of Laguna Parón, which keeps its level thanks to infiltrations, the fluctuations of the discharge of the springs as related to the level of the lake from 1955 to 1969 are reported. The projects for lowering the level of Laguna Parón and for emptying Safuna Alta are described. The latter partially emptied in fact by piping after the earthquake, allowing a final solution.

Two climatic models are proposed for the fluctuation of Austrian Alpine glacier termini. The glacier record, based on annual observations by the Österreichische Alpenverein. is related to climatological data from the high-elevation Sonnblick-Observatorium. Monthly mean temperature and total precipitation during the ablation season for the concurrent plus preceding eleven years are the variables used in this analysis. The preferred model, mean temperature for June, July and August for the concurrent plus preceding seven years, is inversely related to glacier advance. This model was derived by combining those variables with the highest correlation coefficient relative to the glacier record. Mean lag time between climate and glacier termini response seems to be seven years. The second and less preferred model is derived by multiple regression analysis and includes seven variables temperature and precipitation. Variation in the glacier behavior record accounted for by the two models is 71% and 67% respectively.

In front of Laguna Parón there is a huge moraine which turns through 90° in the middle of the valley and with a narrow covered glacier on the top. It has been studied by electrical exploration, and using the displacements of 43 marked boulders on the glacier. Assuming a uniform balance on the glacier tongue and semi-elliptical cross-sections, it has been possible to estimate this balance and the glacier thickness. A great amount of the measured velocity comes from the creep of the moraine itself, which seems 10 be a kind of rock glacier, probably without interstitial ire. It must have taken all the Holocene to be formed. During its complex history a proglacial lake must have formed at some time, the rupture of which explains the crooked form.

The stress field in an isotropic elastic hump representing a typical bedrock feature is obtained for plane strain conditions. Gravity effects are included and the applied load is a normal pressure distribution deduced from an idealized model of glacier flow. A Coulomb failure criterion is applied, including the effective stress change due to pore-water pressure, and stresses on the predicted failure planes determined for different pressure amplitudes and relative gravity contributions. The latter make little difference to the maximum “failure stress" but influence the regions where such stress levels occur. Levels of cohesive stress required to inhibit Coulomb failure are obtained, and are low in general, implying that coherent rock in the adopted hump profile, subject to the model pressure, would not fail. That is, this profile is stable unless jointing introduces an easier failure mechanism.

The results of an experiment to examine the glacier boundary layer over melting ice are described. They show that the boundary layer, as defined by the applicability of the log—linear profile, is approximately 1 m thick. The boundary layer is a frequent, but not a dominant feature of the air close to the ice. The frequency of occurrence is relatively high in cases where wind speeds are mainly controlled by katabatic forces.

Warm waste water, at 30°C, has been discharged from a copper concentrater on to the active terminal ice of Berendon Glacier, British Columbia, since 1970. As a result, rapid basal ice melt causes the formation of caverns and subsequent collapse features referred to as glacier thermokarst. A review of the literature reveals that such features have been described elsewhere from active ice, and the usual conditions assumed for the development of glacier thermokarst (stagnant, heavily debris-covered ice) should be redefined to include these examples.

We explain how preliminary results concerning the internal constitution of the big push moraine at Safuna were obtained in 1967. Cross-sections which were obtained later through electrical and seismic exploration and arduous borings are given. Under the lake Safuna Alta there exists a layer of dead ice which is probably a remnant from an old glacier advance and over which the active glacier slides, but this dead ice does not extend into the push moraine. Since 1950 Safuna Alta has formed, the glacier tongue has lowered by 0.8 m per year on average, and the big push moraine has moved and settled.

The annual balance on the glacier tongue was measured in 1968. It increases by 3.9 m of ice per 100 m in altitude. The discharge of ice near the lake and the annual balance further up-valley allow an estimate of the mean annual balance in the accumulation zone (between 4850 and 6020 m) at 2.30 m of water per year. Until now no annual precipitation higher than 1 m/year had been measured in Cordillera Blanca, but this Cordillera includes many meso-climates.

Eight successive moraines are found at Safuna. They are tentatively correlated with the eight existing between Huaraz and Laguna Llaca. Clapperton's (1972) “group 4” was not formed during the 20th, but during the 17th century. His “group 3” is not from A.D. 1750-1800, but is rather 5 000 to 7 000 years old, according to the offset of Cordillera Blanca great fault.