Optical satellite imagery was used to estimate glacier surface velocities and iceberg calving rates from Agassiz and western Grant Ice Caps, Nunavut, Canada, between 1999 and 2003. The largest mean annual surface velocities ranged from ∼400 to 700 m a−1, but velocities in the ∼100–200 m a−1 range were common. Summer velocities were up to an order of magnitude larger than annually averaged velocities. The highest velocity (∼1530 m a−1) was measured on the floating tongue of Lake Tuborg Glacier between 19 July and 19 August 2001. Calving rates from individual glaciers varied by up to a factor of two between successive years. Summer calving rates were ∼2–8 times larger than annual average rates. The average ratio of the calving flux due to terminus-volume change to that due to ice flow through the glacier terminus was ∼0.81 for the annual rates and ∼1.71 for summer rates. The estimated mean annual calving rate from Agassiz Ice Cap in the period 1999–2002 was 0.67 ± 0.15 km3 a−1, of which ∼54% emanated from Eugenie Glacier alone. This total rate is similar to a previously estimated calving rate from Devon Ice Cap.

The mass changes of the Gulf of Alaska (GoA) glaciers are computed from the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) inter-satellite range-rate data for the period April 2003–September 2007. Through the application of unique processing techniques and a surface mass concentration (mascon) parameterization, the mass variations in the GoA glacier regions have been estimated at high temporal (10 day) and spatial (2 × 2 arc-degrees) resolution. The mascon solutions are directly estimated from a reduction of the GRACE K-band inter-satellite range-rate data and, unlike previous GRACE solutions for the GoA glaciers, do not exhibit contamination by leakage from mass change occurring outside the region of interest. The mascon solutions reveal considerable temporal and spatial variation within the GoA glacier region, with the largest negative mass balances observed in the St Elias Mountains including the Yakutat and Glacier Bay regions. The most rapid losses occurred during the 2004 melt season due to record temperatures in Alaska during that year. The total mass balance of the GoA glacier region was −84 ± 5 Gt a−1 contributing 0.23 ± 0.01 mm a−1 to global sea-level rise from April 2003 through March 2007. Highlighting the large seasonal and interannual variability of the GoA glaciers, the rate determined over the period April 2003–March 2006 is −102 ± 5 Gt a−1, which includes the anomalously high temperatures of 2004 and does not include the large 2007 winter balance-year snowfall. The mascon solutions agree well with regional patterns of glacier mass loss determined from aircraft altimetry and in situ measurements.

This study provides a detailed structural glaciological analysis of changes in surface structures on the Larsen B ice shelf on the Antarctic Peninsula prior to its collapse in February–March 2002. Mapped features include the ice-shelf front, rifts, crevasses, longitudinal linear surface structures and meltwater features. We define domains on the ice shelf related to glacier source areas and demonstrate that, prior to collapse, the central Larsen B ice shelf consisted of four sutured flow units fed by Crane, Jorum, Punchbowl and Hektoria/Green/Evans glaciers. Between these flow units were ‘suture zones’ of thinner ice where the feeder glaciers merged. Prior to collapse, large open-rift systems were present offshore of Foyn Point and Cape Disappointment. These rifts became more pronounced in the years preceding break-up, and ice blocks in the rifts rotated because of the strong lateral shear in this zone. Velocity mapping of the suture zones indicates that the major rifts were not present more than about 20 years ago. We suggest that the ice shelf was preconditioned to collapse by partial rupturing of the sutures between flow units. This, we believe, was the result of ice-shelf front retreat during 1998–2000, reducing the lateral resistive stress on the upstream parts of the shelf and glacier flow units, ice-shelf thinning and pre-shelf-break-up glacier acceleration.

Rapid, local drainage of surface meltwater to the base of the Greenland ice sheet is thought to result in surface velocity variations as far inland as the equilibrium zone (Zwally and others, 2002). Ice-penetrating radar surveys throughout this region allow us to characterize englacial drainage features that appear as vertically stacked diffraction hyperbolae in common-offset profiles. These data are used with a radar-simulation model, which allows for variations in geometry, penetration depth and infill material, to understand the characteristics of these hyperbolae and the likelihood that they are produced by moulins. We find only a moderate correlation between the locations of these possible moulins and supraglacial lakes, indicating that many lakes drain over the surface of the ice sheet, or do not contain sufficient water to reach the bed through moulin formation. We find a strong correlation between moulin location in the ablation region and elevated along-flow tension (due to flow over rough bedrock), which generates surface crevassing and provides an entry point for meltwater. Although theory suggests that moulins may form anywhere on the ice sheet given sufficient meltwater input, our data suggest that they are far more common in the ablation zone than near, or inland from, the equilibrium line.

We compare rates of surface-elevation change on the Greenland ice sheet derived from European Remote-sensing Satellite-2 (ERS-2) radar-altimeter data with those obtained from laser-altimeter data collected over nearly the same time periods. Radar-altimeter data show more rapid thickening (9 ± 1 cm a−1 above 1500 m elevation in the north, and 3 ± 1 cm a−1 above 2000 m in the south) than the laser estimates, possibly caused by a lifting of the radar-reflection horizon associated with changes in the snowpack, such as those caused by progressively increased surface melting, as summer temperatures rise. Over all the ice sheet above 2000 m, this results in an ERS-derived volume balance ∼75 ± 15 km3 a−1 more positive than that from laser data. This bias between laser and radar estimates of elevation change varies spatially and temporally, so cannot at present be corrected without independent surveys such as those presented here. At lower elevations, comparison of detailed repeat laser surveys over Jakobshavn Isbræ with ERS results over the same time interval shows substantial ERS underestimation of ice-thinning rates. This results partly from missing data because of ‘bad’ radar waveforms over the very rough surface topography, and partly from the tendency for large radar footprints to sample preferentially local high points in the topography, thus missing regions of most rapid thinning along glacier depressions.

We use an ice-flow model to demonstrate how flow variations initiated in the marginal zone of an ice sheet affect flow farther inland through longitudinal (along-flow) coupling. Our findings allow for an alternate interpretation of seasonal accelerations observed near the equilibrium line of the Greenland ice sheet (Zwally and others, 2002). We demonstrate that these observations can be explained by accelerations initiated up to 12 km closer to the margin where the ice is ∼40% thinner, is heavily crevassed, experiences a seasonal doubling of velocity, and where the ablation rate, surface meltwater flux and ice temperature are likely higher. Our modeling and observations suggest that conditions and processes normally found near ice-sheet margins are adequate for explaining the observations of Zwally and others (2002). This and considerations of the likely subglacial hydrology in the marginal zone lead us to suggest that seasonal accelerations may have limited impact on ice-sheet mass balance even in the face of climate warming.

For three field seasons (2002/03, 2004/05, 2005/06) we have deployed a network of GPS receivers and seismometers around the tip of a propagating rift on the Amery Ice Shelf, East Antarctica. During these campaigns we detected seven bursts of episodic rift propagation. To determine whether these rift propagation events were triggered by short-term environmental forcings, we analyzed simultaneous ancillary data such as wind speeds, tidal amplitudes and sea-ice fraction (a proxy variable for ocean swell). We find that none of these environmental forcings, separately or together, correlated with rift propagation. This apparent insensitivity of ice-shelf rift propagation to short-term environmental forcings leads us to suggest that the rifting process is primarily driven by the internal glaciological stress. Our hypothesis is supported by order-of-magnitude calculations that the glaciological stress is the dominant term in the force balance. However, our calculations also indicate that as the ice shelf thins or the rift system matures and iceberg detachment becomes imminent, short-term stresses due to winds and ocean swell may become more important.

We acquired center-line surface elevations from glaciers in the St Elias Mountains of Alaska/northwestern Canada using aircraft laser altimetry during 2000–05, and compared these with repeat measurements acquired in 2007. The resulting elevation changes were used to estimate the mass balance of 32 900 km2 of glaciers in the St Elias Mountains during September 2003 to August 2007, yielding a value of −21.2 ± 3.8 Gt a−1, equivalent to an area-averaged mass balance of −0.64 ± 0.12 m a−1 water equivalent (w.e.). High-resolution (2 arc-degrees spatial and 10 day temporal) Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) mass-balance estimates during this time period were scaled to glaciers of the St Elias Mountains, yielding a value of −20.6 ± 3.0 Gt a−1, or an area-averaged mass balance of −0.63 ± 0.09 m a−1 w.e. The difference in balance estimates (altimetry minus GRACE) was −0.6 ± 4.8 Gt a−1, well within the estimated errors. Differences likely resulted from uncertainties in subgrid sampling of the GRACE mass concentration (mascon) solutions, and from errors in assigning an appropriate near-surface density in the altimetry estimates. The good correspondence between GRACE and aircraft altimetry data suggests that high-resolution GRACE mascon solutions can be used to accurately assess mass-balance trends of mountain glacier regions that are undergoing large changes.

Using a combination of satellite sensors, field measurements and satellite-uplinked in situ observing stations, we examine the evolution of several large icebergs drifting east of the Antarctic Peninsula towards South Georgia Island. Three styles of calving are observed during drift: ‘rift calvings’, ‘edge wasting’ and ‘rapid disintegration’. Rift calvings exploit large pre-existing fractures generated in the shelf environment and can occur at any stage of drift. Edge wasting is calving of the iceberg perimeter by numerous small edge-parallel, sliver-shaped icebergs, preserving the general shape of the main iceberg as it shrinks. This process is observed only in areas north of the sea-ice edge. Rapid disintegration, where numerous small calvings occur in rapid succession, is consistently associated with indications of surface melt saturation (surface lakes, firn-pit ponding). Freeboard measurements by ICESat indicate substantial increases in ice-thinning rates north of the sea-ice edge (from <10 m a−1 to >30 m a−1), but surface densification is shown to be an important correction (>2 m freeboard loss before the firn saturates). Edge wasting of icebergs in ‘warm’ surface water (sea-ice-free, >−1.8°C) implies a mechanism based on waterline erosion. Rapid disintegration (‘Larsen B-style’ break-up) is likely due to the effects of surface or saturated-firn water acting on pre-existing crevasses, or on wave- or tidally induced fractures. Changes in microwave backscatter of iceberg firn as icebergs drift into warmer climate and experience increased surface melt suggest a means of predicting when floating ice plates are evolving towards disintegration.

Satellite imagery has been used to acquire seasonal terminus positions of tidewater Hubbard Glacier, Alaska, USA, from 1992 to 2006. During this 15 year time period, the width-averaged advance of the entire terminus has been ∼620 m at a mean rate of 35 m a−1. Seasonal fluctuation of the terminus ranges from 150 to 200 m on average and varies spatially. A section of the terminus, near a narrow gap where the glacier has now twice closed off 40 km long Russell Fiord, exhibited little to no mean advance during this time period but displayed seasonal fluctuations of 300–500 m. Seasonal variability in surface ice speeds and surface sea-water temperatures was also observed; both are potential forcing mechanisms for terminus fluctuations. Seasonal changes in sea-water temperature of 10–12°C, as well as seasonal changes in subglacial freshwater discharge, are inferred to influence calving and submarine melting at the terminus, driving seasonal variations. Displacements of the medial moraine separating Hubbard and Valerie Glaciers at the terminus suggest surge-like pulses of the latter, with a periodicity of several years. The timing of these pulses suggests they may influence the Hubbard terminus near Gilbert Point and have implications for future closures of Russell Fiord.

Near-concurrent surges and multi-decadal surface-elevation changes on the Malaspina Glacier system Alaska, USA, and Yukon, Canada, were investigated using digital elevation models and laser altimetry from airborne and space-borne sensors. Surface-elevation changes on Seward Lobe in two time periods support a hypothesis of moraine folding by a mechanism of sequential surges alternating from southeast to south-southwest. The near-concurrent surges of Agassiz, Lower Seward and Marvine glaciers support a hypothesis of englacial water storage being a critical factor of surging. Acceleration of area-average surface lowering on the piedmont glaciers occurred, from 1.5 ± 0.1 m a−1 between 1972 and 1999 to 2.3 ± 0.3 m a−1 between 1999 and 2002. On the western half of Upper Seward Glacier, above 1600 m, acceleration of surface lowering occurred from 2000 to 2003 relative to that from 1976 to 2000, indicating an effect from the surge of Lower Seward Glacier. From 2003 to 2006, the rate of surface lowering on Upper Seward Glacier has moderated back to the pre-2000 rate, indicating a recovery of surface elevation following the surge. From 1972 to 2002, the Malaspina Glacier system lost 156 ± 19 km3 (ice equivalent) on an area of 3661 km2.

Multitemporal space imagery from 1962 (Corona KH-4), 1992 (Landsat TM), 2001 and 2005 (Terra ASTER) was used to investigate the glacier changes in the Khumbu Himal, Nepal. The ice coverage in the investigation area decreased by about 5% between 1962 and 2005, with the highest retreat rates occurring between 1992 and 2001. The debris coverage increased concomitantly with the decrease in total glacier area. The clean-ice area decreased by >10%. Digital terrain model (DTM) generation from the early Corona KH-4 stereo data in this high-relief terrain is time-consuming, and the results still contain some elevation errors. However, these are minor in the snow-free areas with gentle slopes. Thus comparison of the surfaces of the debris-covered glacier tongues based on the Corona DTM and an ASTER DTM is feasible and shows the downwasting of the debris-covered glaciers. The highest downwasting rates, more than 20 m (>0.5 m a−1), can be found near the transition zone between the active and the stagnant glacier parts of the debris-covered glacier tongues. The downwasting is lower, but still evident, in the active ice areas and at the snout with thick debris cover. All investigated debris-covered glaciers in the study area show similar behaviour. The estimated volume loss for the investigated debris-covered glacier tongues is 0.19 km3.

We present a re-analysis of the results obtained from a series of measurements on freshwater and saline ice beams under various centrifugal accelerations. The data show a strong influence of beam size, brine volume and centrifugal acceleration on the elastic modulus of ice. The data suggest a transition brine volume at around 9%, which might occur close to the melting point, at which the elastic modulus of ice drops rapidly due to a possible change of brine-pocket structure. Furthermore, for brine volumes less than 9%, there is a negligible increase in the elastic modulus measured under high centrifugal acceleration, but for brine volumes more than 9% the increase is considerable, approaching that measured with freshwater ice. This may be due to necking of brine drainage channels just above the ice/water interface at high centrifugal acceleration. A model of sea ice was constructed based on existing theories of brine inclusions in sea ice, which satisfactorily predicts the observed trends.

An annual net accumulation history of the high-elevation region of Devon Ice Cap, Nunavut, Canada, was reconstructed for the period 1963–2003 using five shallow firn cores. Annual net accumulation decreased significantly after 1989. To explain variability in the reconstructed annual net accumulation record, monthly and seasonal moisture-source probabilities were calculated for gridcells throughout the Arctic during 1979–2003. Seasonally, moisture-source probabilities reach a maximum in northern Baffin Bay in late summer/early fall and approach zero throughout the Arctic in winter. Late-summer/early-fall moisture-source probabilities were significantly higher around the North Open Water (NOW) Polynya during the 4 year period of highest annual net accumulation during the 1979–2003 period (1984–87), than during the 4 year period with the lowest annual net accumulation (1994–97). This is due to both a significant decrease in the sea-ice fraction and a significant increase in low-elevation atmospheric transport over the NOW area during the high net accumulation period. Anomalously low net accumulation and anomalously high firnification rates during the 1989–2003 period suggest that a change in ice dynamics, rather than a change in surface mass balance, may explain recent ice-cap thickening observed by laser altimetry.

To assess the potential volume of a glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF) more precisely than in previous studies, we analyze ground survey data and remote-sensing digital elevation models (DEMs) around glacial lakes in the Lunana region, Bhutan. Based on a DEM generated from differential GPS ground surveys, we first evaluate the relative accuracies of DEMs produced by the Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) and the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM). Root-mean-square errors of the altitudinal difference between these DEMs and ground survey data were 11.0 m for ASTER and 11.3 m for SRTM. These errors are similar to those of previous studies. We show that a topographical classification allows a better estimate of elevation on lakes/ponds, riverbeds and glaciers due to their flat surfaces, while the relative accuracy is worse over moraines and hill slopes due to their narrow ridges and steep slopes. Using the optical satellite images and the ground survey data, we re-evaluate the GLOF volume in 1994 as (17.2 ± 5.3) × 106 m3. We show GLOF-related information such as distance, altitudinal difference and gradient at possible outburst points where the lake level is higher than the neighboring riverbed and/or glacial lake.

The age–depth relationship of the Vostok (Antarctica) ice core has been reconstructed in the depth interval 3300–3347 m, by comparing three gas properties in ice (CO2, CH4 and δ18Oatm) with those in the EPICA Dome C (Antarctica) core. Fourteen Vostok depths were examined in this interval, and it was found that nine samples are uniquely dated if candidate ages are restricted to the interval between 400 and 650 kyr. One of these samples is uniquely dated without restriction. The analysis supports previous reports that this section contains ice from Termination V, but that the stratigraphic order of ice is reversed. The top of the overturned layer lies between 3316 and 3319 m. At least one other stratigraphic disturbance was found between 3340 and 3343 m, as indicated by another reversal of the age–depth relationship. Finally, the oldest ice in this section is dated at ≥440 kyr, confirming the existence of ice from the cold marine isotope stage (MIS) 12 interval.

Flow stripes seen in satellite imagery of ice streams and ice shelves are caused by surface undulations with kilometer-scale spacing and meter-scale relief and generally indicate current or recent fast ice flow. On a similar scale, folding of internal ice stratigraphy depicted in cross-flow ice-penetrating radar profiles is also a common occurrence in ice streams, suggesting a possible relationship between the two sets of features. We have traced surface flow stripes in RADARSAT and MODIS imagery on Kamb Ice Stream, West Antarctica, from the onset of streaming flow into the near-stagnant trunk. We compare the morphology and evolution of the surface flow stripes to the folds seen in the internal stratigraphy in cross-ice-stream radar profiles. We find essentially no correspondence in the observed locations or spacings between the radar internal layer folds at depths greater than 100 m and the flow stripes on the surface. The gap in the radar data and the surface mappings in the top 100 m of firn prevents a precise depiction of how the flow stripes and fold patterns at depth diverge. We explore hypotheses about how flow stripes and internal stratigraphic folds can originate and evolve differently as ice flows downstream. We suggest that flow stripes are subject to surface processes that can modify their morphology independently of the internal stratigraphy, leading to changes in the pattern of flow stripes relative to the internal layers below.

We propose a novel Eulerian algorithm to compute the changes of a glacier geometry for given mass balances. The surface of a glacier is obtained by solving a transport equation for the volume of fluid (VOF). The surface mass balance is taken into account by adding an interfacial term in the transport equation. An unstructured mesh with standard stabilized finite elements is used to solve the non-linear Stokes problem. The VOF function is computed on a structured grid with a high resolution. The algorithm is stable for Courant numbers larger than unity and conserves mass to a high accuracy. To demonstrate the potential of the algorithm, we apply it to reconstructed Late-glacial states of a small valley glacier, Vadret Muragl, in the Swiss Alps.

Volume–area scaling is a common tool for deriving future volume evolutions of valley glaciers and their contribution to sea-level rise. We analyze the performance of scaling relationships for deriving volume projections in comparison to projections from a one-dimensional ice-flow model. The model is calibrated for six glaciers (Nigardsbreen, Rhonegletscher, South Cascade Glacier, Sofiyskiy glacier, midre Lovénbreen and Abramov glacier). Volume evolutions forced by different hypothetical mass-balance perturbations are compared with those obtained from volume–area (V-A), volume–length (V-L) and volume–area–length (V-A-L) scaling. Results show that the scaling methods mostly underestimate the volume losses predicted by the ice-flow model, up to 47% for V-A scaling and up to 18% for V-L scaling by the end of the 100 year simulation period. In general, V-L scaling produces closer simulations of volume evolutions derived from the ice-flow model, suggesting that V-L scaling may be a better approach for deriving volume projections than V-A scaling. Sensitivity experiments show that the initial volumes and volume evolutions are highly sensitive to the choice of the scaling constants, yielding both over- and underestimates. However, when normalized by initial volume, volume evolutions are relatively insensitive to the choice of scaling constants, especially in the V-L scaling. The 100 year volume projections differ within 10% of initial volume when the V-A scaling exponent commonly assumed, γ = 1.375, is varied by −30% to +45% (γ = [0.95, 2.00]) and the V-L scaling exponent, q = 2.2, is varied by −30% to +45% (q = [1.52, 3.20]). This is encouraging for the use of scaling methods in glacier volume projections, particularly since scaling exponents may vary between glaciers and the scaling constants are generally unknown.

Rutford Ice Stream and Carlson Inlet are neighbouring glaciers in West Antarctica. Rutford Ice Stream flows at speeds greater than 350 m a−1, whereas Carlson Inlet, which has some similar dimensions and supports a similar driving stress, flows 10–50 times slower. We discuss a range of observations concerning Carlson Inlet, and conclude that there is good indirect evidence that it is a relict ice stream, which ceased streaming more than 240 years BP, but sufficiently recently that its surface morphology, basal water content and basal morphology still retain characteristics produced by streaming. An analysis of expected subglacial drainage pathways indicates that Carlson Inlet is not streaming because it is currently starved of subglacial water, which is currently directed beneath Rutford Ice Stream. This current state of water piracy by Rutford Ice Stream is, however, sensitive to minor thickness changes on the ice streams; a ∼120 m (<4%) thickening of Rutford Ice Stream would divert almost all the subglacial water in the system towards Carlson Inlet and could reactivate its flow. The result highlights the importance of subglacial drainage in controlling ice-stream evolution and the requirement for ice-sheet models to couple ice flow with subglacial drainage.