Seven pairs of cows were chosen at parturition. In each pair, 1 member had had a twin pregnancy (T) and the other was a comparable cow with a single calf pregnancy (S). All cows were offered the same amount of feed over the first 28 weeks of lactation. In early lactation, intakes were equal; in mid-lactation the T group ate more. The T cows had a lower peak yield of milk than the S cows, but rates of decline in yield in mid-lactation were equal for the 2 groups. Lactose concentrations in the milk were equal throughout lactation, but the fat and protein concentrations were greater for the T group in early lactation. The T group yielded smaller amounts of milk solids. The T group lost less weight in early lactation and gained more weight subsequently. Three of the T group, but only 1 of the S group, did not conceive during the test lactation.

The effect of feed intake on abomasal digesta outflow and gastrointestinal motility of preruminant calves given whole milk was studied. Digesta collections were made from calves fitted with re-entrant duodenal cannulas. In other calves myoelectric activity was recorded from electrodes implanted on the abomasum and proximal small intestine, sometimes concurrently with recordings from an electromagnetic flow sensor on the duodenum. After a feed of 2–8 kg milk recurring patterns of intestinal myoelectric activity associated with fasting were temporarily interrupted by a period of continuous irregular spike activity; the duration of the post feeding activity increased with intake of milk. Patterns of abomasal digesta flow were characterized by alternating periods of rapid and slower flow with a frequency that corresponded to cyclic change in myoelectric activity of the small intestine. Hourly rates of abomasal emptying of digesta during a 6-h collection period were significantly greater (P < 0·05) after giving feeds of 6–8 kg milk compared with measurements of flow rate when 2 kg feeds were given. It is concluded that myoelectric activity of the proximal small intestine exercises control over abomasal emptying of digesta by a mechanism which adjusts the mixing and propulsive functions of gut motility in accordance with the amount of milk consumed.

The effect of vacuum fluctuations during milking on the somatic cell count of milk from cows free of intramammary infections was determined. Four vacuum fluctuation treatments were compared using a Latin square design with 20 cows being milked at each of the 4 treatments for a continuous period of 12 d. The vacuum fluctuations were designed to simulate the depressions in vacuum that occur when applying teatcups during milking. In the most severe treatment the vacuum level fell from 50 to 14 kPa. The somatic cell count was not affected by vacuum fluctuation treatment and it is concluded that vacuum fluctuations will not cause an increase in the somatic cell count of milk in the absence of mastitis infections.

Half-udder comparisons were made using 72 and 59 cows in 2 experiments of 8 months duration to assess the incidence of pulsation failure, and its effects on teat condition and mastitis, as a consequence of milking with shortened teatcup liners. Diagonally opposite quarters of all cows were milked with control liners of 148 mm effective length or with the same liners shortened to an effective length of 110–130 mm by inserting a rigid sleeve in the lower barrel of the liner. Milking with shortened teatcup liners resulted in a high incidence of pulsation failure (defined for this experiment as failure of the liner to collapse fully beneath the teat in each pulsation cycle throughout milking). More than 50% of hind teats and 90% of front teats in the research herd penetrated deeply enough into the teatcup to prevent cyclic collapse of liners shortened to 130 mm. Such failure occurred with all teats in liners shortened to 125 mm for front teats or 110 mm for hind teats. The combined results for the 2 experiments showed that almost twice as many new mastitis infections occurred in quarters milked with the shortened liners (47 υ. 25, P < 0·01). This effect was confined to front quarters for which there was a 3-fold difference in the number of new infections (32 for the short liners υ. 11 for the controls, P < 0·001). In both lactations, significantly more teats had petechial haemorrhages when milked with the shortened liners and the electrical conductivity of milk from uninfected front quarters was higher. These results might reflect an interaction between pulsation failure and differences in the degree of overmilking that usually occur between front and hind quarters.

The bactericidal activities of various concentrations of 3 disinfectants commonly used for teat disinfection were compared in vitro using small discs of pig skin previously contaminated with Staphylococcus aureus. Solutions containing 40 g/1 Na hypochlorite, 25 or 50 g/1 chlorhexidine digluconate or iodophor containing 5 g/1 iodine were found to have equivalent or superior bactericidal activity to a solution containing 10 g/1 Na hypochlorite. This in vitro technique offers a convenient alternative to in vivo tests for teat disinfectants and with minor modifications could be applicable to the testing of skin antiseptics in general.

The effect of milking vacuum levels and overmilking on the somatic cell count of milk from cows free of intramammary infections was determined. In the first experiment, 4 levels of vacuum ranging from 35 to 70 kPa were compared in a Latin square design with 20 cows being milked at each of the 4 vacuum treatments for periods of 19 d. In the second experiment 40 cows were milked for 16 weeks at either 50 or 70 kPa with or without 5 min overmilking. Neither vacuum level nor overmilking affected somatic cell count and it is concluded that these factors do not cause stress or irritation that will lead to an increase in somatic cell count in the absence of mastitis infections.

A series of short duration experiments has shown that infections caused by the milking machine or the way in which it is used can be controlled by fitting deflector shields in the teatcup liners. This not only provides a simple means of controlling such infections, but demonstrates that they result from penetration of the streak canal of the teat by contaminated milk particles impacting on the teat ends.

The hygienic condition of 6 milking installations, 3 sanitized by circulation cleaning (CC) with chlorine-based chemicals and 3 by flushing with acidified boiling water (ABW), was tested using rinses of quarter strength Ringer's solution. The bacterial content of the rinses was determined using both colony counts and the direct epifluorescent filter technique (DEFT). A comparison of testing methods gave correlation coefficients between colony count and DEFT of 0·82 for plants using CC and 0·46 for plants using ABW.

Five strains of bacteria belonging to different genera and commonly found on milking equipment were exposed to various degrees of heat and to various concentrations of chlorine. The effects of such treatments on the staining characteristics of the organisms were studied. It was observed that Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus lactis, although killed by heat treatment, stained a bright orange when treated with acridine orange dye. Pseudomonas fluorescens, Escherichia coli and vegetative cells of Bacillus cereus did not take up the orange stain after heat treatment, nor did any of the 5 strains stain orange after treatment with NaOCl. It is suggested that the DEFT is a useful and rapid means of counting bacteria in rinses of equipment where sterilization is due primarily to chlorination, but in the absence of a stain which can differentiate more accurately between dead and living organisms its use is limited where sterilization is carried out solely by heat.

The surface tension (γ) of whole milk (4% fat) and skim-milk was determined in the temperature range 18–135 °C by the drop number method. Measurements were carried out in a temperature-controlled chamber under pressure. Above 90 °C, the mean residence time of the milk at the test temperature was 15 s. Surface tension values were calculated by the Harkins and Brown method, corrections being made to account for the kinetic energy of the drops. The results for whole and skim-milk were not significantly different and the combined data (66 values) could be represented by the equation:

γ =1·8 10-4θ2–0·163θ+55·6,

(where γ is in mN. m-1 and θ is the temperature in °C) with a residual s.d. of 2·1 mN. m-1 (mean relative error 9·6 % at the 5 % level of significance).

The effect of pulsator rates on the somatic cell count of milk from cows free of intramammary infections was determined. Four pulsator rates ranging from 30 to 120 cycles/min were compared in a Latin square design with 20 cows being milked at each of the 4 pulsator rates for periods of 19 d. Somatic cell count was not affected by any of the pulsator rates and it is concluded that varying pulsator rates will not cause stress or irritation that will lead to an increase in somatic cell count in the absence of mastitis infections.

The mammary glands of conventionally reared cows, never exceeding a live weight gain (LWG) of 0·74 kg/d, weighed 39% more and contained 68% more secretory tissue than glands of rapidly reared animals grown at 1·1 kg/d. In 11-month-old heifers reared at 3 rates of LWG (L, 0·57; M, 0·76 and H, 1·18 kg/d) gland weight was related to LWG, but dissected mammary parenchyma was heavier in animals on treatment L than on treatment H and followed a quadratic relationship. Parenchymal composition on treatment H was correlated to both age and body weight at puberty. No similar trend was observed in treatments L and M although group L animals had more ductal tissue and less fat than those of group M. Heifers from treatment L were reared during pregnancy at either 0·68 or 0·84 kg/d LWG (treatments LL and LH respectively) and heifers from treatment H at 0·58 kg/d (treatment HL). Total gland weight was unaffected by treatment, but the percentage by weight of secretory tissue in the gland in treatment HL was less than for treatments LL and LH. These experiments confirm that mammary development is permanently impaired by high rates of LWG in the first year of life. There was no impairment of mammary development in heifers reared moderately in the first year and more rapidly during pregnancy.

The effect of different methods of teat washing on bacterial contamination and sediment levels of the milk of cows kept under 3 housing conditions was studied. By use of an in line milk sampler and steam sterilized clusters the bacterial contamination from the teats after udder preparation was determined directly.

The results show that, even under the same housing conditions and teat washing treatments, considerable variation in bacterial counts and sediment level occurred. Overall, washing with hypochlorite (600 mg/1 available Cl) and drying with a paper towel gave total counts that were significantly lower than were obtained with the other 4 treatments. The aerobic spore count, in which thermoduric flora predominated, was greatly reduced by drying the teats, but the inclusion of hypochlorite in the wash water had little effect. Coliform contamination was very low (∼ 1/ml) even where the cows' teats were heavily soiled and were not washed.

The sediment levels in the milk again showed wide variation and occasional high values (3 mg/l) were recorded for washed cows. In marked contrast to its effect on the bacteriological results, drying had little effect on reducing the sediment.

Seven lactating goat mammary glands from 6 goats were perfused for several hours in the presence of [U-14C]L-leucine (4 experiments) or [2-3H; l-14C]DL-leucine (3 experiments) and received adequate quantities of glucose, acetate and amino acids. Radioactivity in casein was mainly recovered in leucine and 90% of casein leucine was derived from free plasma leucine. About 64% of the leucine molecules were used for casein synthesis. Up to 12% of the molecules were channelled into lipid synthesis, while the remaining (up to 24%) were metabolized to CO2. From the 3H/14C ratio of casein and casein leucine, it was calculated that 70–80% of the leucine molecules were reversibly transaminated before their incorporation into milk protein. However, only 4–8% of the plasma leucine molecules were transaminated during passage through the udder. Different pools for oxidation and for protein synthesis may be present in the goat mammary gland.

Nakai & Chi Le (1970) have described a rapid method for the determination of the N content of bovine milk based on the close correlation of absorbance at 280 nm with values for total N as determined by the Kjeldahl procedure. The applicability of the method to human milk samples has been investigated. The procedure is limited by: (1) the dependence of the relation between absorbance value and N content on both the mode of collection and the postnatal age of the donor, and (2) variable interference by non-protein components of the milk. In spite of these shortcomings, the method may be of value as a screening test for certain human milk banks.

Possible mechanisms for protective roles of milk components on footand-mouth disease virus present in the milk of infected cows were examined. Light scattering bands collected from Ficoll-sucrose gradient fractions of skim-milk contained membrane-limited structures but these were non-infectious for bovine kidney cells, lnfectivity titres in buttermilk higher than those of the original cream or butter suggested association of virus with milk fat globules. Increased infectivity titres in skim-milk after treatment with SDS suggested release of virus particles from dissociated casein micelle subunits. Chelating agents, de-emulsifying agents and trypsin, which alter the structure of the individual milk components casein, lipid and milk fat globule membrane were without effect on infectivity titres.

The ethanol (EtOH) stability characteristics of skim-milk concentrates were found to be governed by their chloride ion content. This effect appeared to be largely one of ionic strength. At pH values around 7·0 and above, EtOH stability showed a linear decrease with increasing chloride content but at pH values < 7 the relationship was non-linear. This empirical observation allows the EtOH stability of a skim-milk concentrate to be predicted from simple measurements on the original milk sample. Moreover, predicted increases in the EtOH stability of concentrated milks were obtained when the levels of monovalent ions in the system were reduced either by dialysis before or after concentration or by ultrafiltration.

The in vivo action of gastric proteinases on bovine milk proteins was studied in rats fed with skim-milk, by analysing gastric contents after 30, 60 and 240 min of digestion. Gastric proteolysis was already marked after 30 min of digestion and liberated a large number of peptides with different molecular weights. αs1-Casein and β-casein were still the main components of the stomach contents together with α-lactalbumin and β-lactoglobulin, which were little degraded, even after 240 min of digestion. A statistical analysis (multivariate method), made on several parameters (such as pH, N, and NPN) showed changes in the stomach contents during the digestion. The amino acid composition of the protein fraction was close to that of the diet, whilst that of the non-protein fraction was very different, being between the amino acid composition of the endogenous proteins and that of the diet.

The proteolysis of highly purified samples of αs1-, αs2-, β-and κ-caseins by porcine plasmin and by bovine plasminogen with urokinase has been examined principally by gel electrophoresis. The resulting peptide band patterns were compared with those of total proteose-peptone (TPP) samples prepared from fresh and stored raw and pasteurized milk, and also with those obtained during the natural course of proteolysis by indigenous enzymes in milk during storage. TPP was found to contain at least 38 components detectable by a single electrophoresis run. Apart from residual traces of whey proteins and intact caseins nearly all of these components were fragments of caseins produced by indigenous plasmin, with products from the breakdown of αs1- and β-casein predominating. Over 90 % of TPP has been accounted for in this way. A fragment consisting of residues 29–105 of β-casein was isolated and characterized from both stored milk and from plasmin digests of β-casein. This fragment was a relatively major product of the natural proteolysis occurring during storage of milk, but contrary to a report in the literature it was not the same as proteose-peptone component 8-slow. Since many of the components of TPP resulted from proteolysis, the composition of TPP was found to vary according to the time and temperature of storage of the milk from which it was prepared. Thus, while the proteose-peptone fraction of milk can easily be defined operationally it cannot be rigorously defined in terms of its composition unless the history of the milk is also defined.

Samples of winter bedding and summer pasture, rinses of teats and milking equipment, and milk samples from bulk tanks from 4 farms were analysed bacteriologically for total count (TC), thermoduric count, total spore count (TSC) and psychrotrophic spore count (PSC).

In bedding and pasture samples the TSC comprised the main component of the thermoduric flora but was less than 0·1 % of the TC. The PSC formed ∼ 1 % of the TSC in winter bedding and ∼23 % of the TSC in pasture. For pasture, the PSC: TSC ratio was highest for the upper layer of soil and lower for the grass and deeper layer of soil. The TSC formed 5% of the thermoduric flora in rinses of milking equipment and only a very low PSC was obtained. The TSC of farm bulk tank milks was higher in the winter than the summer but the PSC was similar in both seasons. This was due to an increase of ∼9 times in the PSC:TSC ratio for milks in summer compared with winter. The PSC in raw and commercially pasteurized milks from a local creamery showed a similar seasonal trend.