1 Agreement Establishing Inter-Governmental Authority on Drought and Development in Eastern Africa (Assembly of Heads of State and Government, Djibouti, 16 January 1986) (IGADD Agreement); Agreement Establishing the Inter-Governmental Authority on Development (Nairobi, 21 March 1996): IGAD/SUM-96/AGRE-Doc (IGAD Agreement), available at:. <http://igad.int/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=93&Itemid=124&limitstart=3> (last accessed 12 December 2010).

2 Preamble and art 7 of the IGADD Agreement, id.

3 See preamble, arts 7 (aims and objectives) and 13 (areas of cooperation) of the IGAD Agreement, above at note 1.

4 Treaty Establishing the African Economic Community (Abuja, Nigeria, 3 June 1991).

5 Id, art 88.

6 UN Conference on Environment and Development (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 3–14 June 1992): A/CONF.151/26 (vol I). For the test adopted by the conference, see (1992) XXXI ILM 814, in particular at 876. See also UN Action 21 (UN, 1993) at 7–271: Doc.A/CONF.151/26/Rev.1; arts 2(2) and 210(1) of the UN Convention to Combat Desertification, available at: <http://www.un.org/millennium/law/xxvii-25.htm> (last accessed 12 December 2010).

7 Paper presented by S Mesfin, minister of foreign affairs of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, at the International Conference on Economic Integration and Trans-boundary Resources, organized by the Ethiopian International Institute for Peace and Development (EIIPD), Addis Ababa, 8–10 September 1997. See EIIPD Economic Integration in the IGAD Sub-Region (EIIPD, March 1998) at 13. Indeed, this strong bilateral cooperative relationship between the two governments has developed politically from their alliance for 15 years as the Eritrean People's Liberation Front and the Tigray People's Liberation Front.

8 Paraphrased from “IGAD project profiles” in IGAD's second special summit (Nairobi, 21 March 1996); AH Bashir (IGAD executive secretary) preface to Protocol of the Establishment of a Conflict Early Warning and Responses Mechanism for IGAD Member States (2002, published by IGAD with the Assistance of the German Society for Technical Cooperation (GTZ)).

9 “The IGADD 5-year programme 1992–1996” (1992, IGAD): IG/CM/5-5/91-92.

10 “IGAD general information” (1997, IGAD Publication Unit) especially at 1.

11 Amendments to the Agreement Establishing Inter-Governmental Authority on Drought and Development in Eastern Africa, Assembly of Heads of State and Government (Nairobi, 21 March 1996): IGAD/SUM-96/AGRE-Doc.

12 Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA); Organization of African Unity (OAU); African Union (AU).

13 IGAD Agreement, above at note 1.

14 Compare with Sands, P and Klein, PBowett's Law of International Institutions (5th ed, 2001, Sweet & Maxwell)Google Scholar, especially paras 1-031 – 1-034; Domenic, C “Coordination between universal and regional organizations” in Blokker, NM and Schermers, HG (eds) Proliferation of International Organizations: Legal Issues (2001, Kluwer Law International) 65Google Scholar; Klabbers, JAn Introduction to Institutional Law (2002, Cambridge University Press) at 3–28Google Scholar.

15 Proceedings of the Summit of Heads of State and Government of IGAD member states for the launching of a revitalized IGAD (Djibouti, 25–26 November 1996), in particular the speech of Isaias Afwerki, president of the State of Eritrea, at 31–32 (annex C3).

16 Id at 1–2 (annex B).

17 Ibid.

18 “IPF speaks: IGAD interviews with IPF chairman, Ambassador Guido La Tella, ambassador to the Federal Republic of Ethiopia” (July – August, September – October 2002) 3/4 IGAD Newsletter 2 at 6–7.

19 See <http://igad.int/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=93&Itemid=124&limitstart=5> (last accessed 12 December 2010).

20 Amerasinghe, CFPrinciples of the Institutional Law of International Organizations (2nd ed, 2005, Cambridge University Press) at 68–86;Google ScholarReparations for Injuries Suffered in the Service of the United Nations advisory opinion (1949 ICJ) rep 174 at 178–79; Sands and Klein Bowett's Law, above at note 14 at 469–76; Schermers, HG and Blokker, NMInternational Institutional Law: Unity with Diversity (3rd ed, 1995, Nijhoff) at 29–33Google Scholar.

21 Seyersted, F “International personality of intergovernmental organizations: Do their capacities really depend upon their constitutions?” (1964) 4 Indian Journal of International Law 1 at 31–40Google Scholar; Brownlie, IPrinciples of Public International Law (6th ed, 2003, Oxford University Press) at 649Google Scholar; Schermers and Blokker, id at paras 29 and 33–43; Sands and Klein, id at 16; Amerasinghe, id at 82–83; Bekker, PHFThe Legal Position of Intergovernmental Organizations: A Functional Necessity Analysis of their Legal Status and Immunity (1994, Nijhoff) at 38 and 41Google Scholar; Muller, ASInternational Organizations and Their Host States: Aspects of Their Legal Relations (1995, Kluwer Law International) at 4Google Scholar; Akande, D “International organizations” in Evans, MD (ed) International Law (2003, Oxford University Press) 269 at 274Google Scholar.

22 White, NDThe Law of International Organizations (1996, Manchester University Press) at 37–41Google Scholar; Brownlie, id at 649; Schermers and Blokker, id at 21–23; Akande, ibid.

23 Art 3 of the IGAD Agreement, above at note 1.

24 Ibid.

25 Reparations case, above at note 20 at 179; The Jurisdiction of the European Commission of the Danube between Galatz and Braila advisory opinion (1927 PCIJ) Ser B, No 14 (18 December); Legality of the Use by a State of Nuclear Weapons in an Armed Conflict (requested by WHO) advisory opinion (1996 ICJ) rep 66 at paras 19 and 74–5.

26 Compare with Bekker The Legal Position above at note 21 at 47 and 76–77; Brownlie Principles of Public International Law, above at note 21 at 649; Klabbers An Introduction to Institutional Law, above at note 14 at 66, note 28; Roma-Montaldo, M “International organizations legal personality and implied powers of international organisations” (1970) 44 British Year Book of International Law 111 at 111–55Google Scholar.

27 Available at: <http://www.afrimap.org/english/images/treaty/ECOWAS%20Treaty.pdf> (last accessed 12 December 2010).

28 Available at: <http://www.africa-union.org/root/au/RECs/comesa.htm> (last accessed 20 December 2010).

29 UN doc A/CONF.183/9, available at: <http://untreaty.un.org/cod/icc/statute/romefra.htm> (last accessed 12 December 2010).

30 Reinisch, AInternational Organizations Before National Courts (2000, Cambridge University Press) at 54 and 75–76Google Scholar; Brownlie, IThe Rule of Law at the Fiftieth Anniversary of the UN (1998, Nijhoff) at 36Google Scholar; Muller International Organizations, above at note 21 at 76; Roma-Montaldo “International organizations legal personality”, above at note 26 at 115.

31 Reparations case, above at note 20 at 178–79.

32 Art 18 of the IGAD Agreement, above at note 1.

33 ILC A/4169 at 10, para 8(a), cited in Sands and Klein Bowett's Law, above at note 14 at para 15-009.

34 Kaniel, MThe Exclusive Treaty-Making Power of the European Community up to the Period of the Single European Act (1996, Kluwer Law International) at 6–9Google Scholar; Reparations case, above at note 20 at 179; Muller International Organizations, above at note 21 at 76.

35 Preamble of the IGAD Agreement, above at note 1; IGAD-IPF technical experts meeting (Djibouti, April 1998).

36 Id, art 4.

37 Muller International Organizations, above at note 21 at 12–24 and 81 and chap 3; Klabbers An Introduction to Institutional Law, above at note 14 at 284; The Applicability of the Obligation to Arbitrate Under Section 21 of the UN Headquarters Agreement case, advisory opinion (1988 ICJ) rep 15 at para 7.

38 Art 3 of the IGAD Agreement, above at note 1.

39 Id, art 6.

40 Brownlie Principles of Public International Law, above at note 21 at 654; Amerasinghe Principles of the Institutional Law, above at note 20 at 316 and 345; Ahluwalia, KThe Legal Status, Privileges and Immunities of the Specialised Agencies of the United Nations and Certain Other International Organizations (1964, Nijhoff) at 208Google Scholar.

41 For instance, the International Court of Justice affirmed the UN's international legal personality by referring to the UN's express treaty-making capacity in chap 12, arts 57 and 63 as well as art 105 of the UN Charter; see Reparations case, above at note 20 at 178–79; Reinisch International Organizations, above at note 30 at 56.

42 Arab Organization for Industrialization and Others v Westland Helicopter Ltd case, Swiss Federal Supreme Court (judgment of 19 July 1988) 80 International Law Report 652 at 658; Schermers and Blokker International Institutional Law, above at note 20 at para 1196.

43 Klabbers An Introduction to Institutional Law, above at note 14 at 54; Amerasinghe Principles of the Institutional Law, above at note 20 at 88–90; McGodrick, GInternational Relations Law of the European Union (1997, Longman) at 28Google Scholar.

44 Art 18 of the IGAD Agreement, above at note 1, and art 6 of the Protocol on the Establishment of a Conflict Early Warning and Response Mechanism for IGAD Member States (Khartoum, 9 January 2002) (CEWARN Protocol).

45 Proceedings of the sixth ordinary IGAD Summit of the Heads of State and Government (Djibouti, 16 March 1998) at 2–5; IGAD “Progress report of the IGAD executive secretary for 1 January – 30 September 1999” (2 October 1999): IGAD/CM-19/99 working paper no 3.

46 Abuja Treaty, above at note 4.

47 Declaration of the 11th Summit of IGAD Heads of State and Government (Nairobi, 20 March 2006). See also declaration of AU first conference of African ministers of integration (COMAI), 30–31 March 2006 (Ouagadougou, 31 March 2006) at 7–8: COMAI/Decl (I).

48 Decisions on the moratorium on the recognition of RECs (Assembly of the AU, seventh ordinary session, Banjul, 1–2 July 2006): DOC.EX.CL/278 (IX).

49 Arts 9–13 of the IGAD Agreement, above at note 1; “Legal quorum, rule 5 of the rules of procedure governing IGAD meeting” and “Election of the Bureau, rule 5 of the rules of procedure governing IGAD meeting” (Nairobi, 4 July 1997): IGAD/CM-16/Rules-Doc.

50 Id, art 9.

51 Id, art 10.

52 Id, art 11.

53 Id, arts 12 and 13.

54 CEWARN Protocol, above at note 44.

55 Id, art 9.

56 Particularly the preambles and art 17 of the IGAD Agreement, above at note 1.

57 Declaration of the eighth ordinary IGAD Summit of Heads of State and Government (Khartoum, 23 November 2000): IGAD/SUM-8/2000-DECLARATION (Khartoum Declaration); Khartoum Declaration at annex I: IGAD/SUM-8/2000-PROC.

58 COMAI Declaration, above at note 47 at 7.

59 AH Bashir (IGAD executive secretary) IGAD annual report 2007 (31 January 2008).

60 S Abukashwa “Integrating gender awareness and the participation of women in IGAD issues on conflict prevention, management and resolution” in IGAD Proceedings: Placing Gender in the Mainstream, IGAD Policy Seminars on Peace Building and Conflict Resolution, Khartoum, Sudan, 15 – 16 October 2001 (2002, IGAD in Co-operation with UNIFEM); ACCORD “Report on advanced negotiations and mediation training for women in peacemaking, leadership and development” (paper presented at the 2nd regular meeting of ministers in charge of women's affairs in IGAD member states, facilitated by IWD, Addis Ababa, 1–5 July 2002).

61 Khartoum Declaration, above at note 57 at annex II, no 3.3.

62 Proceedings of the ninth Summit of the Assembly of the Heads of State and Government of IGAD (Khartoum, 10 – 11 January 2002) at para 6. See also proceedings of the 21st ordinary session of the IGAD Council of Ministers (Nairobi, January 2001); in Nairobi, the first regular meeting of ministers in charge of women's affairs recommendation was endorsed by the IGAD Council and Summit.

63 Draft proceedings of the IGAD gender policy strategy and the third regular meeting of the ministers in-charge of women/gender affairs: Terms of reference for the IGAD-Gender Peace and Development Forum (Nairobi, 15 July 2004).

64 Declaration of the fourth regular meeting of IGAD ministers in charge of gender/women affairs (Nairobi, 21–22 February 2006).

65 The UN General Assembly adopted the Millennium Declaration committing member states to achieving the following goals: (1) eradicate extreme hunger and poverty; (2) achieve universal primary education; (3) promote gender equality and empower women by eliminating gender disparity in schooling, preferably by 2005 and not later than 2015; (4) reduce child mortality; (5) reduce maternal mortality by 75%; (6) combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases; (7) ensure environmental stability; and (8) develop a global partnership for development, referring aid and trade with special treatment for the poorest countries: see: <http://www.undp.org/mdg/basics.shtml> (last accessed 12 December 2010).

66 Khartoum Declaration, above at note 57 at para 3.2.

67 CEWARN Protocol, above at note 44.

68 Id, art 2(2); art 17(b) of the IGAD Agreement, above at note 1.

69 Report of the inaugural meeting of the Committee of Permanent Secretaries of CEWARN (Entebbe, Uganda, 6–7 June 2002) at 23.

70 Mwagiru, M “The legal framework for CEWARN” in Protocol on the Establishment of a Conflict Early Warning and Response Mechanism for IGAD Member States (2002, IGAD with the assistance of GTZ) at 6–17Google Scholar.

71 “Strategy workshop makes key recommendations” (June – September 2006) no 22/23 IGAD News (Djibouti) at 14; “Tackling the conflict challenges in the Horn of Africa” (June – September 2006) no 22/23 IGAD News (Djibouti) at 10.

72 Declarations of principles of international law concerning friendly relations and cooperation among states in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations (24 October 1970): UN General Assembly res 2625 (XXV).

73 Convention on the Prevention and Combating of Terrorism by the 35th Assembly of Heads of State and Government of the OAU (Algiers, 12–14 July 1999): AHG/Decl 1–2 (XXXV).

74 Resolution on regional cooperation to combat terrorism by the ninth IGAD Summit of the Assembly of Heads of State and Government (Khartoum, 10–11 January 2002) at annex 3.

75 Report on IGAD conference on the prevention and combating of terrorism (Addis Ababa, 24–27 June 2003).

76 Khartoum declaration on combating terrorism and transactional organized crime (Khartoum, 17–19 January 2004).

77 Implementation plan of action for combating and preventing terrorism (24–27 June 2003, IGAD) at 3, para 2:1.

78 Communiqué by the tenth ordinary IGAD Summit of Heads of State and Government (Kampala, 24 October 2003) (Kampala Communiqué) at no 16.

79 Available at: <http://www.iss.co.za/index.php?link_id=32&slink_id=270&link_type=12&slink_type=12&tmpl_id=3>, (last accessed 23 September 2008).

80 Statement on the launching of the IGAD Capacity Building Programme Against Terrorism and the opening of the office in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia (Addis Ababa, 13 June 2006), available at: <http://www.issafrica.org/index.php?link_id=21&slink_id=2507&link_type=12&slink_type=12&tmpl_id=3> (last accessed 23 September 2008).

81 “IGAD Capacity Building Programme Against Terrorism” (24 October – November 2006) IGAD News (Djibouti) at 3; IGAD annual report 2007, above at note 59 at 50–55.

82 Ibid; see: <http://www.igad.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=111&Itemid=65> (last accessed 23 September 2008).

83 IGAD annual report 2007, above at note 59 at 50–55.

84 Centre for Strategic and International Studies, Washington (5 September 2002); International Crisis Group “Sudan's best chance for peace: How not to lose it” (17 September 2002) Africa Report No 51 (Nairobi/Brussels) at note 123.

85 M Tadesse “New security frontiers in the Horn of Africa” (briefing paper as part of the Security in a Globalised World programme of the Friedrich Elbert Foundation, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, June 2004) at para 4, available at: <http://mocambique.fes-international.de/downloads/SecurityHorn.pdf> (last accessed 12 December 2010).

86 IGAD “Report on the integration of the drought monitoring centre (DMCN) into IGAD” at 1–13; IGAD annual report 2007, above at note 59 at 13 and 33–35.

87 Kampala Communiqué, above at note 78.

88 “IGAD executive secretary visits ICPAC” (June – July 2005) issue no 18 IGAD News (Djibouti) at 8.

89 “Report on the integration of the DMCN”, above at note 86 at 1–13; “Updates from satellites centre” (March – April 2007) issue no 26 IGAD News (Djibouti) at 8. See also the ICPAC website at: <http://www.icpac.net/> (last accessed 12 December 2010).

90 See the ICPAC website, ibid.

91 Khartoum Declaration, above at note 57 at paras 2–3.

92 Draft Protocol for the Establishment of Inter-Parliamentary Union Within IGAD Member States (2004).

93 IGAD annual report 2007, above at note 59 at 13 and 55.

94 Ibid; see: <http://www.igad.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=43&Itemid=53> (last accessed 23 September 2008).

95 Arts 2(2) and 3(2) of the Draft Protocol, above at note 92.

96 Id, art 5(3).

97 See IGAD website at: <http://www.igad.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=43&Itemid=53> (last accessed 23 September 2008).

98 AU Assembly, second ordinary session (Maputo, 10–12 July 2003): AU/Dec.6-31-II (Dec no 15-II); Decisions on the moratorium on the recognition of RECs, above at note 48.

99 Proceedings of the meeting of the eastern Africa chiefs of defence staff on the establishment of EASBRIG (Jinja, 16–17 February 2004), available at: <http://www.easbrig.org/docs/EACDS%20Jinja%202004.pdf> (last accessed 23 September 2008); N Alusala “African Standby Force: East Africa moves on” (2004) 13(2) African Security Review (Pretoria) 113 at 113–21.

100 First EASBRIG Assembly of Heads of State and Government (Addis Ababa, 11 April 2005): decision, doc EASBRIG/AHS/1/05; Report of the Summit of the Eastern Africa Heads of State and Government on the establishment of EASBRIG (Addis Ababa, 11 April 2005) at 3, available at: < http://www.reliefweb.int/library/documents/2005/igad-afr-11apr.pdf> (last accessed 20 December 2010).

101 Roadmap for the operationalization of the African Standby Force: Experts' meeting on the relationship between the AU and the regional mechanisms for conflict prevention, management and resolution (Addis Ababa, 22–23 March 2005): EXP/AU-RECs/ASF/4(I). See also: <http://www.easbrig.org/members.php> (last accessed 12 December 2010).

102 Alusala “African Standby Force”, above at note 99 at 120.

103 Report of the Summit, above at note 100 at paras 9–10.

104 See: <http://www.easbrig.org/about.php> (last accessed 12 December 2010).

105 East African Brigade Coordination Mechanism: Regional experts workshop on the concept of cooperation in peace and security in the eastern Africa region (Seychelles, 24–26 September 2007).

106 Siebert, J “Human security: Setting the agenda for the Horn of Africa” (Summer 2009) 30/2The Ploughshares Monitor 4 at 4Google Scholar.

107 See: <http://www.ploughshares.ca/libraries/monitor/monj09g.pdf> (last accessed on 2 September 2009).

108 “Pastoral conflict situational reports” (June – September 2006) no 22/23 IGAD News (Djibouti) at 7 and 18.

109 As IGAD News put it, the human toll in pastoral conflicts in the Horn of African sub-region is horrifying, with a death count in the same area of well over five hundred per year: “Shortcomings costing the Horn lives and untold losses” (June – September 2006) no 22/23 IGAD News (Djibouti) at 7.

110 Report of the inaugural meeting of the Committee of Permanent Secretaries of CEWARN (presentation by M Mwagiru, Entebbe, Kampala, Uganda, 6–7 June 2002) at para 7.

111 For example, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) participates in the democratization process by providing a variety of assistance and mechanisms. It created the Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights, and the high commissioner for national minorities lends credence to the notion of conflict prevention through early involvement in potential ethnic conflicts. For more information about OSCE, see: <http://www.osce.org/> (last accessed 12 December 2010). Some documents can also be found at: <http://www.mzz.gov.si/index.php?id=500&L=2> (last accessed 12 December 2010).

112 W Biriggwa “The challenges of international terrorism to African diplomacy in the 21st century” vol 7/Par-I, series no 21; “Diplomacy vs terrorism” (proceedings of the EIIPD conference on the challenges of African diplomacy in the 21st Century, Addis Ababa, February 2005) at 14; Aust, AHandbook of International Law (2005, Cambridge University Press) at 284CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

113 Tadesse “New security frontiers”, above at note 85 at para 4.

114 T Lyons “The centre for preventive action: Avoiding conflict in the Horn of Africa: US policy toward Ethiopia and Eritrea” (a paper prepared for the Council on Foreign Relations, CSR no 21, December 2006); Nicholson, MInternational Relations: A Concise Introduction (1998, Macmillan) at 97CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

115 J Siebert “Human security”, above at note 106 at 3–4.

116 “United Nations climate change conference 7–18 December 2009” (August – September 2009) Ethiopian News (the monthly publication of the Ethiopian Embassy in London) 1 at 2.

117 Alusala “African Standby Force”, above at note 99 at 115–16; “EASBRIG launches logistics map exercise”, available at: <http://www.africa-confidential.com/article-preview/id/3359/No-Title> (last accessed 20 December 2010).

118 See: <http://www.easbrig.org/members.php> (last accessed 12 December 2010).

119 Memorandum of Understanding on the Establishment of an East African Standby Brigade, available at: <http://www.easbrig.org/docs/mouapr05.pdf> (last accessed 12 December 2010).

120 Proceedings of the Summit of Heads of State and Government, above at note 15.

121 “IGAD sparing no efforts to prevent a full-scale conflict between Eritrea and Ethiopia” (Djibouti, 1998); Declaration of the seventh Summit of IGAD Assembly of the Heads of State and Government (Djibouti, 26 November 1999).

122 IRIN interview of Kenyan Foreign Minister Bonaya Godana (23 April 1999).

123 The Algiers Peace Agreement between Eritrea and Ethiopia, signed on 12 December 2000, at Algiers, Algeria.

124 The Eritrea-Ethiopia Boundary Commission delivered its decision on delimitation of the border between Eritrea and Ethiopia, available at: <http://www.pca-cpa.org/showpage.asp?pag_id=1150> (last accessed 12 December 2010).

125 B Schiemsky et al “Report of the monitoring group on Somalia pursuant to Security Council resolution 1630 (2005)” (New York, 5 April 2006): UNSC (S/2006/229).

126 B Mesfin “The Eritrea-Djibouti border dispute” (15 September 2008) Institute for Security Studies: Report Situation 1–19 at 6–9. See also: <http://www.nytimes.com/2008/05/25/world/africa/25iht-eritrea.4.13193224.html> (last accessed 21 December 2010).

127 Schiemsky et al “Report of the monitoring group on Somalia”, above at note 125; alleged military support to the Islamic Courts Union, see: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_Courts_Union> (last accessed 12 December 2010).

128 The “Greater Somalia” claim includes the territory of the Ogaden and the Haud in Ethiopia, the Northern Frontier District in Kenya, British Somaliland and French Somaliland, which is the current Djibouti. See Thomson, AAn Introduction to African Politics (2nd ed, 2000, Routledge) at 23Google Scholar. Also listen again to Shabelle Radio broadcast on 19 November 2006, available at: <http://www.shabelle.net/index.php?archive=1> (last accessed 21 December 2010).

129 Pevehous, JC “Democracy from the out-side-in? International organizations and democratization” in (2002) 56(3) International Organization 515 at 523CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

130 “Report of the monitoring group on Somalia pursuant to Security Council resolution 1676 (2006)” at 43, available at: <http://www.cfr.org/content/publications/attachments/Somalia.doc> (last accessed 12 December 2010). See also Schiemsky et al “Report of the monitoring group on Somalia”, above at note 125.

131 Proceedings of the Summit of Heads of State and Government, above at note 15 at annex C3 at 31–32.

132 Berghof Foundation for Peace and Support “Sudan: Conflict analysis and oppositions for systematic conflict transformation” (January 2006); UN panel on resolution 1556/2004.

133 Khartoum Declaration, above at note 57 at paras 2–3.

134 See RECs: <http://www.africa-union.org/root/au/RECs/IGAD.htm> (last accessed 12 December 2010).

135 The East African Community has three members, including Tanzania; COMESA has 20 members; and the Community of Sahel-Saharan States has 23 members.

136 COMAI Declaration, above at note 47 at 7–8. See also art 1(d) and (e) of the Abuja Treaty, above at note 4; Decisions on the moratorium on the recognition of RECs, above at note 48.

137 “Thinking regionally: Priorities for US policy toward Africa” (paper presented by S Booker, Africa Policy Information Centre, July 1996).

138 Ghebermeskel, A “Regional approach to conflict management revisited: The Somali experience” (2002) 4 Online Journal of Peace and Conflict Resolution 2 at 9–29Google Scholar.

139 Mesfin “The Eritrea-Djibouti border dispute”, above at note 126 at 8–9.

140 “Capacity, achievements and constraints of sub-regional organisations in conflict prevention and resolution: The case of ECOWAS” (paper presented by L Kouyate, ECOWAS executive secretary, at an international symposium on the role of sub-regional and non-governmental organisations in conflict prevention and peace initiatives in sub-Saharan Africa, Tokyo, 28–29 March 2000).

141 Diehl, PF et al. “The dynamic of international law: The interaction of normative and operating system” (2003) 57 International Organization 43 at 58–62CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

142 White The Law of International Organizations, above at note 22 at 28; Brownlie The Rule of Law, above at note 30 at 35–36; Aust, AModern Treaty Law and Practice (2000, Cambridge University Press) at 47Google Scholar.

143 White, id at 41 and 106; Abbott, KW and Snidal, D “Hard and soft law in international governance” in (2000) 54 International Organization 421–55CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

144 “Reviewing the year before the 20th Anniversary, Dr Attalla” (April – May 2006) no 21 IGAD News at 4.

145 “Closing of the Dr Attalla H Bashir interview” (March – June 2004) no 12 IGAD News at 10.

146 Ibid.

147 Klabbers, J “The life & times of the law of international organisations” (2001) 70 Nordic Journal of International Law 287 at 315–17CrossRefGoogle Scholar.