Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-r5fsc Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-24T15:24:35.511Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The Impact of the Spanish Civil War and the Second World War on Portuguese and Spanish Africa

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  22 January 2009

Gervase Clarence-Smith
Gervase Clarence-Smith
Affiliation:
S.O.A.S., University of London
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

In the present stage of research, it is easiest to discern the economic effects of war on the Iberian colonies. These were diverse in chronological, regional and sectoral terms, but the overall results were to tie the economies of the Portuguese and Spanish colonies more firmly to those of the metropoles. This did not exclude two processes pulling in other directions. Firstly, the foreign trade of the colonies persisted but was reoriented away from Europe and towards North America. Secondly, shortages and insecurity of transport led to a significant degree of import substitution and regional African trade in the colonies, in the fields of both industry and agriculture. The social impact of war resembled that in much of the rest of Africa, great hardships and labour pressures on the mass of the population, but windfall profits for a few, both black and white. The political consequences of the two conflicts remain most shadowy at present, but they appear to have heightened the covert struggle between pro-fascist and anti-fascist groups in a situation of strong repression, flaring up into open strife only in the Spanish territories in 1936.

Type
Research Article
Information
The Journal of African History , Volume 26 , Issue 4 , October 1985 , pp. 309 - 326
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1985

References

1 Andrews, C., Portuguese East Africa, 1948 (London, 1949), I.Google Scholar

2 Fynes-Clinton, D., Portuguese West Africa, Economic and Commercial Conditions (London, 1949), I.Google Scholar

3 Spence, C., Descrição económica de Moçambique (Lourenço Marques, 1951), 58.Google Scholar

4 There exists an enormous literature on this subject. For some of the recent work, see Smyth, D., ‘Diplomacy and the strategy of survival: British policy and Spanish non-belligerency, 1940–1941’ (Ph.D. thesis, University of Cambridge, 1978; forthcoming as a book in 1985)Google Scholar; Suñer, R. Serrano, Entre el silencio y la propaganda, la historia como fue, memorias (Barcelona, 1977)Google Scholar; Pike, D., ‘Franco and the Axis stigma’, Journal of Contemporary History, XVII (1982), 369–407CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Halstead, C., ‘Aborted imperialism, Spain's occupation of Tangier, 1940–1945’, Iberian Studies, VII, 2 (1978), 53–71.Google Scholar For the officious statement of Spanish claims and a set of maps, see Areilza, J. M. De and Castiella, F., Reivindicaciones de España (second edition, Madrid, 1941).Google Scholar

5 Smyth, , ‘Diplomacy’Google Scholar; Medlicott, W., The Economic Blockade (2 vols., London, 1952, 1959)Google Scholar; Andrews, , Portuguese East Africa, 13.Google Scholar

6 Spence, , Descrição, 77Google Scholar; Great Britain: Admiralty (Naval Intelligence Division), Spain and Portugal (London, 1941–1945), IV, 99, 104Google Scholar; Nosti, J., Agricultura de Guinea, promesa para España (Madrid, 1948), 43Google Scholar; Liniger-Goumaz, M., La Guinée Equatoriale, un pays méconnu (Paris, 1979), 217, 378–379.Google Scholar

7 Companhia de Diamantes de Angola, Relatórios.

8 Ruhl, K., ‘L'alliance à distance: les relations économiques germano-espagnoles de 1936 à 1945’, Revue d'Histoire de la Deuxième Guerre Mondiale, no. 118 (1980), 69–102Google Scholar; idem, Spanien im zweiten Weltkrieg (Hamburg, 1975), passim; Fleming, S., ‘Spanish Morocco and the Alzamiento Nacional, 1936–1939’, Revue d'Histoire Maghrébine, IX, 27–28 (1982), 231–232.Google Scholar

9 For Mozambique, see Vail, L. and White, L., Capitalism and Colonialism in Mozambique, A Study of the Quelimane District (London, 1980), ch. 6Google Scholar; Andrews, , Portuguese East Africa, 13Google Scholar; Moçambique, , Anuário Estatístico.Google Scholar For Angola, see Lefebvre, G., L'Angola, son histoire, son économie (Liège, 1947)Google Scholar; Azevedo, J. M. Cerqueira De, Angola, exemplo de trabalho (Luanda, 1958).Google Scholar For Guinea, see Monteiro, R. Vaz, ‘Relatório do governador’ (Bissau, 1944) (typescript in S.O.A.S. library).Google Scholar

10 See Clarence-Smith, G., The Third Portuguese Empire, 1825–1975 (Manchester, 1985), ch. 6.Google Scholar

11 Monteiro, , Relatório, 188Google Scholar; Liniger-Goumaz, , La Guinée Equatoriale, 230.Google Scholar

12 Bastos, C., Indústria e arte têxtil (Oporto, 1960)Google Scholar, introduction; Portugal: Ministério das Colónias (Junta de Exportação do Algodão Colonial), Relatório de 1942 (Lisbon, c. 1943)Google Scholar; Vail, and White, , Capitalism, 272–279Google Scholar; Azevedo, , Angola, 233Google Scholar; Lefebvre, , L'Angola, 142Google Scholar; Monteiro, M. G., ‘A industrialização nas províncias ultramarinas portuguesas de África’, Boletim da Associação Industrial de Angola, V, 19 (1954), 54.Google Scholar

13 Clarence-Smith, , Third Portuguese Empire, ch. 6Google Scholar; figures from Portugal: Instituto Nacional de Estatística, Comércio externo.

14 Spain: Ministerio de Hacienda (Dirección General de Aduanas), Estadísticas del comercio exterior de España. Population figures from statistical yearbooks of Spain and Portugal. For the economic situation in Spain, see Clavera, J. et al. , Capitalismo español, de la autarquia a la estabilización, 1939–1959, I (Madrid, 1973).Google Scholar

15 Thomas, Hugh, The Spanish civil war (third edition, Harmondsworth, 1977), 417Google Scholar; Bidyogo, D. Ndongo, Historia y tragedia de Guinea Equatorial (Madrid, 1977), 51Google Scholar; Fleming, , ‘Spanish Morocco’, 231.Google Scholar

16 Clavera, , Capitalismo, 46–53, 120Google Scholar; Pike, , ‘Franco’, 375.Google Scholar For the Canaries, see Información Comercial Española, 156, 10 December 1946, 157, 25 December 1946, and 57, 10 November 1942.Google Scholar For Guinea, see Nosti, , Agricultura, 57 and passim. Detailed figures in Spain, Estadísticas.Google Scholar

17 Spain, , Estadísticas, for figures.Google Scholar For rubber, see Medlicott, , Economic blockade, 11, 286–287Google Scholar; Clavera, , Capitalismo, 83Google Scholar; Nosti, , Agricultura, 19, 88.Google Scholar For the Canaries, see Bravo, T., Geografía general de las islas Canarias, I (Santa Cruz, 1954), 359–360, 379Google Scholar; Mercer, J., Canary islands: Fuerteventura (Newton Abbott, 1973), 124.Google Scholar For the Spanish Sahara, see Mercer, J., Spanish Sahara (London, 1976), 184–189.Google Scholar

18 Hamilton, T., ‘Spanish dreams of empire’, Foreign Affairs, XXII (April, 1944), 458–468CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Medlicott, , Economic blockade, I, 519Google Scholar; Smyth, , ‘Diplomacy’, 326.Google Scholar

19 Great Britain: Admiralty (Naval Intelligence Division), Morocco (London, 1941–2), II, 233; Grau, R. Perpiña, De colonización y economía en la Guinea Española (Barcelona, 1945), 270Google Scholar; Halstead, , ‘Aborted imperialism’, 60Google Scholar; Spain, , Estadísticas.Google Scholar

20 Portugal: Ministério do Ultramar, Legislação mandada aplicar ao ultramar português, 1926–1963 (Lisbon, 1965–74), I, 138; Bettencourt, J. Tristão De, Relatório do governador geral de Moçambique, respeitante ao período de 20 de março de 1940 a 31 de dezembro 1942 (Lisbon, 1945), II, 257–279Google Scholar; Monteiro, , Relatório, 269–273.Google Scholar Figures for Angola from Dilolwa, C. Rocha, Contribuição à história económica de Angola, (Luanda, 1978), 33, 42, 49.Google Scholar For Mozambique, see Andrews, , Portuguese East Africa, 5–6Google Scholar; Kay, S. and Ezard, C., Report on Economic and Commercial Conditions in Portuguese East Africa (London, 1938), 10.Google Scholar For De Almeida, Guinea P. Ramos, História do colonialismo português em África (Lisbon, 1978–1979), III, 204Google Scholar; Cunningham, J., ‘The colonial period in Guiné’, Tarikh, VI, 4 (1980), 42.Google Scholar

21 Portugal, , Comércio externo, for figures.Google Scholar For rum, see Cunningham, , ‘The colonial period’, 42–43Google Scholar; Carreira, A., Estudos de economia caboverdiana (Lisbon, 1982), 281.Google Scholar

22 Portugal, , Comércio externoGoogle Scholar; Lefebvre, , L'Angola, 216, 226Google Scholar; Bettencourt, , Relatório, 69–70, 135, 261–262Google Scholar; Fynes-Clinton, , Portuguese West Africa, 13Google Scholar; Bastos, , Indústria.Google Scholar

23 Great Britain, Spain and Portugal, II, 367–372; III, 530–539.Google Scholar

24 Anderson, P., ‘Portugal and the end of ultra-colonialism’, New Left Review, no. 16 (1962), 122.Google Scholar

25 Oliveira, J. Da Costa, Aplicação de capitais nas províncias ultramarinas (Lisbon, 1961), 12–14Google Scholar; Clarence-Smith, W. G., ‘Les investissements belges en Angola, 1912–1961’, in Coquery-Vidrovitch, C. (ed.), Entreprises et entrepreneurs en Afrique, XIXe et XXe siècles (Paris, 1983), I, 438–439Google Scholar; Spence, , Descrição, 71, 77–78Google Scholar; Galvão, H. and Selvagem, C., Império ultramarino português (Lisbon, 1950–1953), IV, 192–193Google Scholar; Leal, F. Pinto Da Cunha, Peregrinações através do poder económico (Lisbon, 1960), 152Google Scholar; Monteiro, , Relatório, 164, 168, 196.Google Scholar

26 Azevedo, , Angola, 326–330, 343–345, 360–361, 434–439, 452–453Google Scholar; Great Britain, Spain and Portugal, II, 367–372.Google Scholar

27 Clarence-Smith, , Third Portuguese empire, ch. 6Google Scholar, for details on Portuguese colonies. For Spanish territories, see Bravo, , Geografía, I, 376–377Google Scholar; Great Britain, Morocco, II, 202–205.Google Scholar

28 Bettencourt, , Relatório, 64–67, 102–113, 126Google Scholar; Vail, and White, , Capitalism, 279–280Google Scholar; Spence, , Descrição, 60, 71.Google Scholar

29 Galvão, and Selvagem, , Império, I, 151, 260Google Scholar; Carreira, A., Migrações nas ilhas de Cabo Verde (Lisbon, 1977), 235–238.Google Scholar

30 Enciclopedia Universal Ilustrada Europeo-Americana, Suplemento 1945–1948, 824–825Google Scholar; Seddon, D., Moroccan peasants, a century of change in the eastern Rif, 1870–1970 (Folkestone, 1981), 132.Google Scholar

31 Morna, A. De Freitas, Angola, um ano no governo geral, 1942–1943 (Lisbon, 1944), I, 7–8Google Scholar; Lefebvre, , L'Angola, 223–224, 232–228Google Scholar; Bettencourt, , Relatório, II, 165–166Google Scholar; Andrews, , Portuguese East Africa, 7–8Google Scholar; Spence, , Descrição, 55–58Google Scholar; Vail, and White, , Capitalism, 270–271.Google Scholar

32 Henriksen, T., Mozambique, a history (London, 1978), 130Google Scholar; First, R. et al. , The Mozambican Miner (Maputo, 1977), tables.Google Scholar

33 For general military spending in Portugal see Robinson, R. A. H., Contemporary Portugal, A History (London, 1979), 88.Google Scholar For Spain, Woodward, E. L., British Foreign Policy in the Second World War (London, 1970–1976), IV, 14.Google Scholar For the Moroccan plan, Enciclopedia Universal Ilustrada Europeo-Americana, Suplemento 1945–1948, 824–825.Google Scholar For Portuguese colonies see Vaz, J. M., ‘Portugal and her overseas territories: a study in economic association and cooperation’ (Ph.D. thesis, University of Exeter, 1978), 143–144.Google Scholar For Angola, , Fynes-Clinton, Portuguese West Africa, 5Google Scholar; Morna, , Angola, 43–46.Google Scholar

34 Monteiro, , Relatório, passim.Google Scholar

35 Information on peasant production is scattered through the sources. For chiefs, see Vail, and White, , Capitalism, 296, 306–308.Google Scholar

36 Morna, , Angola, 420.Google Scholar

37 Spence, , Descrição, 59, 94–95.Google Scholar

38 Nosti, , Agricultura, 55–56.Google Scholar

39 Pélissier, R., Les guerres grises, résistances et révoltes en Angola, 1845–1941 (Orgeval, 1977), 509–515.Google Scholar

40 Bravo, N. Saraiva, A cultura algodoeira na economia do norte de Moçambique (Lisbon, 1963)Google Scholar; Vail, and White, , Capitalism, 314–325Google Scholar; Spence, , Descrição, 64–65, 72Google Scholar; Dilolwa, , Contribuição, 62.Google Scholar

41 International Labour Office, ‘Report of the commission…concerning the observance by the government of Portugal of the Abolition of Forced Labour Convention…’ (Geneva, 1962), 95 (published as second supplement to Official Bulletin, XLV, 2, April 1962)Google Scholar; Monteiro, , Relatório, 166–167.Google Scholar

42 Bettencourt, , Relatório, II, map, 58–59Google Scholar; Muslow, B., Mozambique, the Revolution and its Origins (London, 1983), 37Google Scholar; Vail, and White, , Capitalism, 267, 298.Google Scholar

43 Bender, G., Angola under the Portuguese (London, 1978), 148.Google Scholar

44 Liniger-Goumaz, , La Guinée Equatoriale, 124.Google Scholar

45 Bettencourt, , Relatório, 79–86Google Scholar; Vail, and White, , Capitalism, ch. 7.Google Scholar

46 Morna, , Angola, 40–42, 94–95, 101, 211, 229Google Scholar; Ferreira, J., Província de Luanda (Coimbra, 1945), 136–138Google Scholar; Galvão, H., Santa Maria, My Crusade for Portugal (London, 1961), 53Google Scholar; Guimarães, M. Marques and Paiva, A., A indústria de pesca (? Lisbon 1942), 32–33.Google Scholar

47 Castro, A., O sistema colonial português em África, meados do século XX (second edition; Lisbon, 1978), 212.Google Scholar

48 Tenreiro, F., A ilha de São Tomé (Lisbon, 1961), 106–107Google Scholar, for figures; Morna, , Angola, 229, 242–247Google Scholar; Carreira, , Migrações, 235–238.Google Scholar

49 Osuntokun, A., Equatorial Guinea-Nigerian relations, the diplomacy of labour (Ibadan, 1978), ch. 3.Google Scholar For labour in lieu of military service, see Grau, Perpiña, De colonización, 115–117.Google Scholar

50 Fleming, , ‘Spanish Morocco’, 227–229Google Scholar; Mercer, , Spanish Sahara, 121Google Scholar; D'outremer, Archives, Aix-en-Provence, Carton 27 H 6, Bulletins Mensuels du Protectorat, 2160, May 1938Google Scholar (I would like to thank George Joffé for giving me photocopies of the notes he took in the Aix archives).

51 Aix archives, 5142, November 1938, for repatriation; Woodward, , British Foreign Policy, IV, 14, for troops in Morocco.Google Scholar

52 Osuntokun, , Equatorial Guinea, 37–38.Google Scholar

53 Thomas, , Spanish civil war, 216–224, 368Google Scholar; Fleming, , ‘Spanish Morocco’, 233Google Scholar; Mercer, , Spanish Sahara, 121.Google Scholar

54 Bidyogo, Ndongo, Historia, 47–51.Google Scholar

55 Bettencourt, , Relatório, II, 348–349Google Scholar; Munslow, , Mozambique, 68–69.Google Scholar

56 See Lefebvre, , L'Angola, 102.Google Scholar

57 See Marcum, J., The Angolan revolution, I (Cambridge, Mass., 1969).Google Scholar

58 Bidyogo, Ndongo, Historia, 57.Google Scholar

59 See statistical yearbooks.

60 Fleming, , ‘Spanish Morocco’, 232–234Google Scholar; Halstead, , ‘Aborted imperialism’, 55–58Google Scholar; Figueras, T. Garcia, Santa Cruz de Mar Pequeña, Ifni, Sahara; la acción de España en la costa occidental de Africa (Madrid, 1941), 329–330Google Scholar; Thompson, V. and Adloff, R., The Western Saharans, Background to Conflict, (London, 1980), 107.Google Scholar

61 Fleming, , ‘Spanish Morocco’, 233–235Google Scholar; Thomas, , Spanish Civil War, 578–579Google Scholar; Seddon, , Moroccan Peasants, 139.Google Scholar