¹ The word ‘education’ as used in this article refers to formal instruction in European type schools.

² Up to the late 1940s the development of Western education in non-Muslim areas in northern Nigeria was the responsibility of the Christian missions, since the policy of the colonial administration was to confine native administration schools to Muslim areas. The non-Muslim native administrations were too poor to run schools. Hence during the period covered by this article native administration schools in non-Muslim areas were one-teacher schools. Because of the low educational standard of one-teacher schools, many non-Muslim parents sent their daughters to mission schools instead of native administration schools. It is for this reason that I have found it unnecessary to discuss girls’ education in non-Muslim areas in this article.

³ On British educational policy in northern Nigeria see, for instance, Graham, S. F., Government and Mission Education in Northern Nigeria, 1900–1919 (Ibadan, 1966), 58–179)Google Scholar; Boyan, D. R., ‘Educational policy formulation in the north of Nigeria, 1900–1969’ (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Wisconsin, 1972Google Scholar ), and Tibenderana, P. K., ‘The administration of Sokoto, Gwandu and Argungu emirates under British rule, 1900–1946’ (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Ibadan, 1974), 380–419.Google Scholar

⁴ Up to 1935 girls' schools in northern Nigeria were officially referred to as ‘centres’. This term was dropped in 1935 and the term ‘school’ was substituted. However for the sake of clarity the term ‘school’ is used throughout this article.

⁵ H. H. Annetts to Residents of Kano and Zaria, 10 December 1929, Nigerian National Archives Kaduna (hereafter N.N.A.K.), S.N.P. 17/2/11133/1.

⁶ See Beshir, M. O., Educational Development in the Sudan, 1898 to 1956 (Oxford, 1969), 45–50Google Scholar; and Sanderson, L. M., ‘Girls’ education in the Northern Sudan’, in Brown, G. N. and Hiskett, M. (eds), Conflict and Harmony in Education in Tropical Africa (London, 1975), 19–87.Google Scholar

⁷ Fika, A. M., ‘The Political and Economic Re-orientation of Kano Emirate, Northern Nigeria, 1882–1940’ (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of London, 1973), 375.Google Scholar

⁸ Plummer, G., ‘Girls’ education in northern Nigeria, 1941’Google Scholar, N.N.A.K., Kanoprof 5/1/3676. This memo was addressed to the Chief Commissioner of the Northern Province (northern Nigeria).

⁹ Fegan, E. S., ‘Girls’ schools in Kano and Zaria’Google Scholar, May 1932, N.N.A.K., Kanoprof 5/1/3676.

¹⁰ See Foster, P. J., Education and Social Change in Ghana (London, 1965), 61–63.Google Scholar

¹¹ Assistant Director of Education, ‘Education Department Annual Report for 1930’Google Scholar, N.N.A.K., Ministry of Education, Kaduna (hereafter M.E.K.), I/I/DEN403.

¹² Fika, , ‘Political’, 376.Google Scholar

¹³ Fegan, E. S., ‘Girls’ education in Kano and Zaria Provinces’, 1932Google Scholar, N.N.A.K., S.N.P. 16/2/11133/1.

¹⁴ For a clearer exposition on the emirs’ attitude towards girls' education generally see Tibenderana, P. K., ‘The emirs and the spread of Western education in Northern Nigeria, 1910–1946’, J. Afr. Hist., xxiv, (1983), 528–531.Google Scholar

¹⁵ S.N.P. to Chief Secretary to the Government, 27 July 1933, N.N.A.K., S.N.P. 17/2/11133/1.

¹⁶ H. H. Annetts to Acting Lieutenant-Governor, 29 May 1933, N.N.A.K., S.N.P. 17/2/11133/1.

¹⁷ G. J. Lethem to Director of Education, 30 May 1933, N.N.A.K., S.N.P. 17/2/11133/1.

¹⁸ Hussey, E. R. J., ‘Memo on girls' education in northern Nigeria’, 8 June 1933Google Scholar, N.N.A.K., S.N.P. 17/2/11133/1.

¹⁹ As a result of the economic depression which reduced government revenue from £8,268,928 in 1926 to £4,857,612 in 1931, Governor Cameron cut down government expenditure very drastically. This led to widespread retrenchment of European staff, who were too expensive to maintain. This seriously affected the Education Department whose share of revenue was reduced from £306,233 in 1930 to £230,872 in 1934. See Perham, M., Native Administration in Nigeria (London, 1937), 273 and 280.Google Scholar

²⁰ During an interview held at Kaduna on 30 May 1933 the sultan of Sokoto and the emir of Gwandu informed the Lieutenant-Governor that they were prepared to give up part of their salaries to pay for the salaries of European mistresses if the funds of their native administrations were deemed insufficient. This was not an empty proposition from a man like the sultan of Sokoto whose salary and allowances per annum amounted in 1933 to £8,000 (see Tibenderana, , ‘The emirs’, 529Google Scholar ).

²¹ G. J. Lethem to Hussey, 30 May 1933, N.N.A.K., Sokprof 3/2/4388.

²² See Sir Hesketh Bell to Hanns Vischer, 28 October 1910, N.N.A.K., S.N.P. 6/6/22/1910.

²³ Fegan, E. S., ‘Girls’ education in Kano and Zaria provinces’, 1932Google Scholar, N.N.A.K., S.N.P. 17/2/11133/1.

²⁴ Hussey, , ‘Memo on girls' education’Google Scholar, N.N.A.K., S.N.P. 17/2/11133/1.

²⁵ Opposition to co-education in many parts of Africa was not necessarily due to religious doctrine alone. In some places local customs were opposed to the system. For example, the customs of the Azande and Moru in southern Sudan were totally opposed to co-education although they were not Muslim. It was generally feared that the mixing of sexes would encourage sexual immorality.

²⁶ On the people's attitude towards Koranic school teachers generally see Sanneh, L. O., ‘The Islamic education of an African child: stresses and tensions’, in Brown, and Hiskett, , Conflict, 168–186Google Scholar; J.N.Paden, Religion and Political Culture in Kano (Berkeley, 1973), 56–60, 94–104 and 124–130Google Scholar; and Fafunwa, A. B., History of Education in Nigeria (London, 1974), 52–72.Google Scholar

²⁷ See Assistant Director of Education to S.N.P., 20 March 1934, N.N.A.K., S.N.P. 17/2/11133/1.

²⁸ Assistant Director of Education, ‘Returns of girls in elementary schools in 1936’, 1936Google Scholar, N.N.A.K., Sokprof 3/2/4388.

²⁹ The following were the number of girls attending elementary schools in different provinces: Niger 76, Ilorin 51, Bornu 46, Kabba 39, Bauchi 35, Katsina 34, Benue 26, Kano 24 and Zaria 17. These figures are extracted from ibid.

³⁰ See Lady Superintendent of girls' Education to Assistant Director of Education, 22 September 1936, N.N.A.K., Kadmineduc 4/12/D.D.N.883/1.

³¹ Assistant Director of Education to S.N.P. 4 March 1938, N.N.A.K., Kadmineduc 4/12/D.D.N.883/1.

³² Although male teachers could teach separate girls' classes, each school with separate girls' classes had a female teacher or teachers on its staff to teach the girls.

³³ Bieneman, G. A. J., ‘Memo on female education’, 6 August 1935Google Scholar, N.N.A.K., S.N.P. 17/2/11133/S.1.

³⁴ A. Booker to Senior Education Officer, 15 April 1940, N.N.A.K., Kamineduc 4/12/D.D.N. 883/1.

³⁵ Booker, A., ‘Education Department Annual Report for 1939’Google Scholar (n.d.), N.N.A.K., M.E.K.1/2/D.D.N. 1874.

³⁶ This rule remained in force until 1945.

³⁷ Bieneman, G. A. J., ‘Memo on female education’, 6 August 1935Google Scholar, N.N.A.K., S.N.P. 17/2/11133/S.1.

³⁸ Resident of Sokoto to S.N.P., 28 July 1933, N.N.A.K., Sokprof 3/2/4388.

³⁹ In 1942 Sokoto Women's Training Centre was designated Women's Training College. For the sake of clarity the term ‘centre’ is used throughout this article.

⁴⁰ See Trevor, J., ‘Western education and Muslim Fulani/Hausa women in Sokoto, Northern Nigeria’, in Brown, and Hiskett, , Conflict, 257.Google Scholar

⁴¹ ibid., 264.

⁴² Resident of Kano to S.N.P., 21 July 1941, N.N.A.K., Kanoprof 5/1/3676.

⁴³ Plummer, G., ‘Memo on girls' education in the Northern Provinces 1940’Google Scholar, N.N.A.K., Kanoprof 5/1/3676.

⁴⁴ Shillingford, A. A., ‘Education Department Annual Report for 1946’, 16 June 1947.Google Scholar

⁴⁵ Plummer, , ‘Memo on girls' education’.Google Scholar

⁴⁶ ibid.