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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 22 April 2010
The colonial military history of British and French West Africa has received copious attention from historians and soldiers. The role of the region in the two world wars has also been discussed in one way or the other. However, in the discussion of West Africa's colonial military history and the role of the colonies in the two world wars, hardly any reference is made to the air factor. While discussions of colonial military history concentrate on infantry and naval exploits, those on the role of the colonies in the world wars concentrate on their importance as sources of raw materials and manpower for British and French war efforts in other theatres of the wars. The wrong impressions thus given are that the air factor was alien to West Africa's colonial defence and that the region was largely outside the strategic manoeuvres of the two world wars. This is understandable in that the Maxim gun and the gunboat had largely been responsible for the conquest and policing of West Africa. Moreover, while infantry and naval warfare had been the mode of combat in all societies from time immemorial the air as a factor of warfare is largely a phenomenon of the twentieth century. Lastly, strategists in British West Africa ignored the air factor for a very long time because of its capital intensity.
1 Among earlier writings on West Africa's Military history and the two wars are Mbaeyi, P., British Military and Naval Forces in West African History 1807–1874 (New York 1978)Google Scholar; Balesi, C.J., From Adversaries to Comrades in Arms: West Africans (Waltham 1979)Google Scholar; Davis, S.C., Reservoir of Men: A History of Black Troops of French West Africa (New York 1970)Google Scholar; Clayton, A., France, Soldiers and Africa (Pergamon 1988)Google Scholar; Ukpabi, S.C., Mercantile Soldiers: Nigeria's Military (Zaria 1989)Google Scholar; Kanya-Forstner, A.S., The Conquest of the Western Sudan: A Study in French Military Imperialism (Cambridge 1969)Google Scholar; Le, J.M., African Armies and Civil Order (London 1969)Google Scholar and a host of Journal articles in both English and French. Similarly, writings on the role of the West African colonies in the two World Wars include ‘Jide Osuntokun, Nigeria in the First World War (London 1979); Crowder, M., ‘The 1939–1945 War and West Africa’ in: Ajayi, J.F.A. and Crowder, M. eds, History of West African II (London 1987) 665–692Google Scholar.
2 Akinyeye, O.A., ‘A Comparative Study of British and French Colonial Defence Policies in West Africa 1886–1945’ (Ph.D. Thesis, University of Lagos, 1991) 261–330.Google Scholar
3 Omissi, D.E., Air Power and Colonial Control (Manchester 1990) 52–59Google Scholar and Killingray, D., ‘“A Swift Agent of Government”: Air Power in British Colonial Africa, 1916–1939’, Journal of African History 25 (1984) 429–444.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
4 Public Record Office (hereafter PRO) /cab 80/13 Memo 480. Joint Planning Committee (hereafter JPC) Report of 22/6/1940.
5 Akinyeye, ‘Comparative Study’.
6 PRO/cab 7/9 Paper 245. ODC Meeting of 1/7/1979.
7 Service Historique de l'Armée de l'Air (hereafter SHAA), Carton 2153, dossier 1. Organisation Générale du Commandement de l'Air en AOF.
8 PRO/Air 8/6/CAS Memo to 138th Meeting of the CID held on 2nd February, 1922.
9 Ibid.
10 Omissi, Air Power, 29–39.
11 ‘Osuntokun, Jide, ‘West Africa's Armed Revolts During the First World War’, Tarikh 5/3 (1977) 6–17.Google Scholar
12 Omissi, Air Power, 97.
13 Ibid., 99.
14 Ibid., 102.
15 PRO/W032/2502. Intelligence Report on the Gold Coast by Major Bishop.
16 Crowder, ‘The 1939–1945 War’ and Osuntokun, ‘Armed Revolts’.
17 SHAA/Carton c 2153. L'Aeronautique 1922–1925 (a publication of the Service Historique de l'Armée de l'air.)
18 Ibid.
19 Ibid.
20 SHAA/Carton c 2153, dossier 1. l'Organisation Générale.
21 PRO/Air 8/63/ND32, Note on French Air Situation and its Effects on British Air Policy by the General Staff in May 1923.
22 Admiralty Reply to Memo on Air Menace in the Mediterranean by Air Staff in May, 1923.
23 PRO/Air 9/44/Folio 2. Air Staff memo of 7/8/1923.
24 Ibid.
25 Akinyeye, Yomi, ‘German Threat and the Value of West Africa to the French in the Inter-War Years’, Ife Journal of History 2 (1995) 36–52.Google Scholar
26 PRO/Air 9/44/9. Air Staff Note of May, 1927.
27 PRO/Air 9/44/17, Deputy Chief of Air Staff Notes on Aircraft requirements for the defence of Colonial Ports, 1932.
28 Ibid.
29 Akinyeye, ‘German Threat’.
30 PRO/Air 9/44/ODC/l 84/Secret of 31/1/1934, Air Defence Freetown.
31 Ibid.
32 Ibid.
33 Ibid.
34 Ibid.
35 PRO/Air 9/44/150336/ODC Memo No. 665m of 24/2/1936.
36 PRO/WO 143/1 97/Paper 106, Anglo-French Staff Talks of 24/8/1939.
37 Akinyeye, ‘Comparative Study’.
38 Ibid.
39 Yomi Akinyeye, ‘From the Backwaters to the Mainstream: British Defence Policy in West Africa 1940–1942’ (Completed Manuscript being considered by Nigerian Defence Academy Journal).
40 Among scholars who have examined the role of West African colonies in the Second World War are Crowder, M., ‘The 1939–1945 War and West Africa’ in: Ajayi, J.F.A. and Crowder, M. eds, History of West Africa II (London 1987) 665–692.Google Scholar The piece simply reechoes Haywood and Clarke's view on British feelings about West Africa between 1940 and 1942 in terms of strategy and goes on to elaborate on the role of the colonies as sources of raw materials and manpower for British War Efforts elsewhere. Haywood, A. and Clarke, F.A.S. in their The History of Royal West African Frontier Force (Aldershot 1964)Google Scholar made a passing reference to the strategic importance of West Africa between 1940 and 1942, and then concentrated on the logistic problems facing the British on expanding RWAFF from pre-war establishment to meet the challenges of 1940–1942. The book contains little about manoeuvres, by the British to secure West Africa in those years. This is understandable in that even their superior (the General Officer Commander) was sometimes kept in the dark about such manoeuvres and was simply informed of the final plans. Similarly, Killingray, D. in his ‘Military and Labour Recruitment in the Gold Coast during the Second World War’, Journal of African History (JAH), 23/1 (1982)Google Scholar concerned himself with the importance of the Gold Coast and the West African Colonies as important sources of man power and raw materials for British war efforts but admitted the paucity of studies on the Second World War and Africa. Writings on French West Africa have not departed substantially from this trend. Echenberg, M. in his ‘Mort pour la France: African Soldiers in France during the Second World War’, JAH 24/9 (1985)Google Scholar dealt with the vicissitude of West African soldiers in France during the Second World War. Paul Alkens in ‘Dakar and the Strategy of West Africa in Foreign Affairs’ 10/2, simply talked about the strategic importance of Dakar to the U.S. and French West Africa's hostility to Britain as a result of the Mer-el-Kabir and Dakar episodes. Arthur Maders Operation Menace deals with the fiasco of British invasion of Dakar in September, 1940.
41 PRO/cab 80/13, Memo 481 of 22/6/1940, Joint Planning Committee Report.
42 PRO/cab 89/13, Memo 488, Chiefs of Staff Committee Meeting of 24/8/1940.
43 Ibid.
44 PRO/Air 8/573, CO. Memo of 22/5/1941 to the Prime Minister on the Defences of West Africa.
45 PRO/Air 8/573, COSC Meeting of 5/6/1941.
46 PRO/Air 8/573, Notes on Proposal for American Air base at Bathurst, 5/6/1941.
47 PRO/WO 193/858, British Staff Talk of 24/7/1941.
48 PRO/WO 106/2885, COSC Meeting of 21/8/1941 with the GOCWA.
49 PRO/Air 8/925, Prime Minister's Memo to COSC Meeting of 3/6/1941.
50 SHAA/Carton 413/dossier 1, Note of 26/10/1941, Bordeaux to French delegation to the Armistice Commission.
51 PRO/WO 106/2885, desp. of 9/6/1941, Air Ministry to Coastal Command Admiralty.
52 PRO/W106/2885, desp 1435 of 14/6/1941, W.O. to GOCWA.
53 PRO/WO 106/2914, desp 3247 of 25//7/1941, HQ RAF Middle East to Air Ministry.
54 PRO/WO 106/2914, desp 891 of 26/7/94, Air Ministry to Air Officer Commanding 95 Squadron Takoradi.
55 PRO/WO 106/2914 Secret of 13/8/1941.
56 Ibid.
57 PRO/WO 106/2914 desp 4815 of 2//12/1941 Air Ministry to Air Headquarter West Africa.
58 PRO/Air 8/573, Notes on Proposal for American Air bases at Bathurst and Port Sudana 8/6/1941.
59 Ibid.
60 PRO/WO 193/858, desp 1444 of 13/3/1942 British Joint Staff Mission, Washington to W.O.
61 PRO/WO 193/COSC, Meeting of 30/12/1942 with the GOCWA.
62 PRO/W0/1 93/COSC memo of 13/12/1943 based on Joint-Intelligence Committee's memo of 21/2/1942.
63 PRO/CO 107/7, File 1371/940, Tel of 20/12/1943 Air Ministry to Air Officer Commanding West Africa.