The main concern of this paper is the issue of women workers' identity and class consciousness. This investigation is principally based on in-depth interviews with three generations of female factory workers. Extremely unequal power relations between capital and labour is insufficient to explain the more pronounced exploitation of female workers over males. In spite of these women having the potential for collective power, their factory lives have been characterized by treatment in constant violation of labour laws. Low-caste female workers have gone through a process of effeminization which has acted to curb their class identity and limit their scope of action. In the process of caste and class emancipation, the question of gender has been neglected by trade union leaders and politicians. The radicalism of males is built upon women's maintaining of the families – a reality which strongly contradicts hegemonic gender discourses and confuses gender identities.

This article compares the racially heterogeneous, privately-owned American telephone industry, and the relatively homogeneous, publicly-owned British system, to examine how race and gender constructions implicit in the national identities of the two countries influence employment opportunities. For all the differences in the histories of the two telephone industries and variations in the construction of racial, national, and gender identities, blacks in the United States and Britain had remarkably similar experiences in obtaining employment as telephone operators. This leads to the conclusion that the power of national identity in the workplace is strongly based on “whiteness”. Despite their limited access to national identity, white women experienced advantages that were denied to black women, which illustrates how race modified the impact of gender on the privileges of national identity.

At the World Fair in Philadelphia in 1876, the German goods on display were described as “cheap and nasty”, setting off a vigorous debate about the state of German industry. Social democrats attacked policies of increasing competitiveness of German exports through keeping wages low, and claimed that the quality of the goods produced by socialist workers was higher than those produced by others. An analysis of the debate shows the extent to which social democrats not only resorted to arguments stressing the “national interest”, but also the extent to which nominally Marxist socialists in this period were still attached to traditional artisanal values of pride in the quality of their work.

Anticlericalism was a decisive trend in Spanish political, social, andcultural life from the beginning of the nineteenth century until the SpanishCivil War. It is true that anticlerical movements also existed in otherEuropean states, but the confrontations were much more intense in Spain.José M. Sánchez recalls this in a concise summary of the violence unleashedby these struggles: from 1822 to 1936, at least 235 members of the clergywere assassinated and around 500 churches and religious centres wereburned. In addition, in the three years of the Civil War, almost 7,000priests, monks and nuns suffered the same fate. Despite this, until a fewyears ago there were frequent complaints about the scant attention paid bySpanish historians to this trend. Julio de la Cueva Merino referred to thislack of research, and even to the ‘historiographic vacuum’, in a summaryof publications on the subject which appeared in 1991. Three years later,Pilar Salomón mentioned the ‘absence of fruitful bibliographic production’, and, as recently as 1997, Rafael Cruz spoke of a ‘shortage of works’,or at least a very scarce production of monographs. Outside the field ofhistory, anthropologists such as David Gilmore and Manuel Delgado havelikewise criticized the lack of interest of their colleagues in the face of whatGilmore defined as ‘as powerful a social and ideological phenomenon asdevotion’, and which should deserve the same intellectual consideration.