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Educational Pressure Groups and the Indoctrination of the Radical Ideology of Solidarism, 1895–1914

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  18 December 2008

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On a previous occasion, I have argued that during the two decades preceding the First World War, the French Radical Party, under electoral pressure from the separate and then united Socialist parties of Jaurès and Guesde, began to look for a doctrine around which they could rally to defend their recently acquired hold on power against both the individualists to their right and the collectivists on their left. It was the six-month duration of Léon Bourgeois' purely Radical government of 1895–6 and his Lettres sur le Mouvement Social of 1895, republished in 1896 as a book and entitled Solidarité, that marked the beginning of the belle époque of Radical-socialism and of the Third Republic. It was argued that during the next two decades, Bourgeois' doctrine of Solidarism became for platform, and to a lesser extent, practical political purposes, the official social philosophy of the régime, probably reaching its apotheosis at the time of the Paris World Exhibition of 1900. This pre-eminent position in the doctrinal firmament of France was not achieved without an intensive campaign through a variety of mainly educational pressure groups – to be anticipated in a lay “République des professeurs.” It is the principal channels and people through which this indoctrination was propagated that will be our concern in the pages that follow. However, the activities of the “Universités Populaires”, which were closely allied to the movements discussed here, have been passed over because they have formed the subject-matter of a separate study.

Type
Research Article
Copyright
Copyright © Internationaal Instituut voor Sociale Geschiedenis 1963

References

page 1 note 1 See my article “The official Social Philosophy of the French Third Republic: Léon Bourgeois and Solidarism”, in: The International Review of Social History, 1961, VI, Part 1, pp. 1948.Google Scholar

page 1 note 2 “The Co-operative origins, rise and collapse of the 'Universités Populaires'”, in Archives Internationales de Sociologie de la Coopération, Jan.-June 1961, IX, pp. 317.Google Scholar

page 2 note 1 Halévy, D., La République des Comités, p. 30;Google Scholar cf. pp. 33–59 on Bourgeois' Government as marking a turning point in French politics. See also Dansette, A., Histoire Religieuse de la France Contemporaine, 1951, II, pp. 6971.Google Scholar

page 2 note 2 Fourier, , Quatre Mouvements, 1808, p. 284;Google Scholar cf. 273–78; Weill, G., Histoire du Parti Républicain en France, 1900, p. 18;Google ScholarHeadings, M. J., French Freemasonry under the Third Republic, p. 41Google Scholar note, 57. On Dr. Guépin (1805–73) see Picard, R., “Un Saint-Simonien démocrate, le Dr. Ange Guépin” in Revue d'histoire économique et sociale, 1925, XIII.Google Scholar

The place of the concept of solidarity in Masonic social philosophy is evident from the following quotation from a Projet d'un Manifeste Maçonnique, of 1869, which appears in Bernardin's, C. Précis Historique du Grand Orient de France, 1909.Google Scholar He refers to “un des points les plus importants de la morale, un de ses résultats les plus immédiats de ce grand principe, jusqu'ici assez mal compris et plus mal appliqué, qui constitue la solidarité entre tous les hommes. Cette solidarité n'est qu'une des conséquences de la fraternité” (p. 9) and Freemasonry regarded as “absolument nécessaire l'étude approfondie et fraternelle des questions sociales; elle en recherchera la solution.” (p. 13).

page 3 note 1 Macé, J., La Ligue de l'Enseignement à Beblenheim, 1862–70, 1890, p. 5Google Scholar; cf. 8, 18, 354; Compayré, G., Jean Macé et l'Instruction Obligatoire, 1903, pp. 1619.Google Scholar

page 3 note 2 Compayré, loc. cit., pp. 18, 56, 85.

page 3 note 3 Macé, loc. cit., p. 397; cf. Friedberg, M., Les conceptions méthodologiques et sociales de Charles Fourier. Leur influence, 1926, p. 144Google Scholar; Gaumont, J., Histoire générale de la Coopération en France, I, pp. 253,Google Scholar 519, 549, 589–90. See Macé's article “De la Coopération appliquée à l'instruction” in: Almanach de la Coopération, 1868, pp. 6466Google Scholar; a “Société générale coopérative de l'enseignment libre” being set up under the auspices of the League in 1868 (Almanach, 1869, pp. 2021.)Google Scholar On Macé's part in federating the Alsatian co-operatives, see Almanach de la Coopération, 1867, p. 150.Google Scholar

page 3 note 4 Macé, loc. cit., pp. 343–44. On the “Ligue de l'Enseignement” see Buisson's, F.Nouveau Dictionnaire de Pédagogie et d'instruction primaire, 1911, pp. 1039–41.Google Scholar

page 4 note 1 Macé, , pp. 369–74Google Scholar; Bulletin de la Ligue Française de l'Enseignement, 1904, p. 93.Google Scholar

page 4 note 2 Dessoye, A., Macé, J. et la fondation de la Ligue de l'Enseignement, 1883, p. 85Google Scholar note, 175 note; cf. Fauvety's, review La Religion Laïque, 1878, p. 300.Google Scholar

page 4 note 3 M. J. Headings, op. cit., p. 8; cf. 104–21, 170 et seq., 203, 208.

page 5 note 1 Dansette, op. cit., II, pp. 247–49; Headings, pp. 71–75, 135, 183–84. Bourgeois was a member of the “Bienfaisance Châlonnaise” lodge at Châlons-sur-Marne. (Nourrisson, P.: Les Jacobins au Pouvoir, nouvelles études sur la Franc-Maçonnerie Contemporaine, 1904, P. 57).Google Scholar

page 5 note 2 Quoted by Nourrisson, loc. cit., p. 41, 122; cf. 66–67, 93, 109, 126–27, 256.

page 5 note 3 Headings, p. 175Google Scholar, 199.

page 6 note 1 The “Association Philotechnique” was founded in 1848, when the pre-Solidarist upsurge of enthusiasm for adult and professional education led to a split in the too Conservative “Association Polytechnique” – itself the product of the Revolution of 1830–which numbered Auguste Comte amongst its most active members. (Pressard, A., Histoire de l'Association Philotechnique, 1898, pp. 79.Google Scholar) Amongst the past presidents of the “Association Philotechnique” were such respected Republican dignitaries as Jules Simon (author of La Politique Radicale, 1868, a pale version of the Radicalism of the Second Republic and heralding the Opportunism of the Third Republic), H. Carnot (sometime Saint-Simonian and controversially Minister of Education in 1848), Victor Hugo and Jules Ferry (who implemented the laïcisation of the French educational system in the 1880's). (Ibid., p. 49.) Of Bourgeois' presidency from 1893–96, Pressard affirmed: “ces trois années peuvent être comptés parmi les plus prospères de notre histoire.” (Ibid., p. 151. See also Buisson's, F.Nouveau Dictionnaire de Pédagogie et d'instruction primaire, 1911, pp. 123–25.)Google Scholar

page 6 note 2 Bulletin de la Ligue, 1898, p. 373Google Scholar; Ib., 1900, p. 24. At this 1899 Congress, G. Cleiftie, in a report entitled De la Solidarité dans les oeuvres post-scolaires, proclaimed in words that echoed those of Bourgeois: “La solidarité ne remplace pas la fraternité; elle y ajoute la précision scientifique, la connaissance réfléchie des obligations sociales, le caractère rigoureux d'une dette…L'Ecole républicaine ne pouvait pas rester en dehors des conquêtes que poursuivent dans l'ordre économique et social, les idées de progrès et de solidarité…L'école toute entière n'aura plus qu'une âme – la solidarité.” (Ib., 1899, pp. 560–65.) For the detailed educational applications of the principle of solidarity envisaged by the Congress, see particularly the declaration “Qu'il y a intérêt de solidarité sociale à favoriser les relations entre les classes intellectuelles et les classes laborieuses”, through the development of Popular Universities. (Ib., pp. 646–47.)

The Universités Populaires responded in kind, e.g. Pecquignat's, P.lecture to the “Coopération des Idées”, published in the periodical of the same name, 05 1899, pp. 5455,Google Scholar on the need to teach “la morale de la solidarité”.

page 7 note 1 Goyau, G., L'Ecole d'Aujourd'hui, I, 1899, pp. 163–67Google Scholar, 171, 215–220. As the pro-Solidarist economist Charles Gide had observed: “Quand on inaugure une de nos nombreuses universités populaires, il est rare que l'orateur chargé du discours d'ouverture ne la présente pas comme une réalisation de l'idée de Solidarité.” (Union pour l'Action Morale, 1.7.1900, p. 290.) Paul Crouzet in Etat actuel de l'Enseignement Populaire Social, a contribution to the 1900 International Congress on the Teaching of the Social Sciences, affirmed that “partout et par des moyens divers l'instituteur est un agent de concorde sociale, ne se contentant pas de prêcher la solidarité, mais solidarisant effectivement l'entourage de l'école.” (1900, p. 8 and passim.) The largest school teachers' “Amicale” in Paris was significantly called “Solidarité”. (Revue de la Solidarité Sociale, Aug. 1905, p. 223.)Google Scholar

page 7 note 2 Bulletin de la Ligue, 1900, pp. 756, 905Google Scholar; cf. 505–10, 811, 976–78. E. Chaufour, Secretary of the “Union Démocratique pour l'Education Sociale,” in his report to the same Congress, stressed the need to co-ordinate the multifarious social activities of the teachers: “il fallait une philosophie et une méthode. Elles sont en germe dans un petit livre dont le seul titre, Solidarité, me dispensera de vous citer l'auteur, trop connu de vous tous. Du principe nettement posé, les conséquences théoriques et pratiques vont sortir bientôt…” (Ib., p. 801.) For Bourgeois' view of the Solidarist rôle of education, see Solidarité, , 1896, 7th ed., 1912, pp. 9798, 130Google Scholar; Essai d'Une Philosophie de la Solidarité, 1902 pp. 8284, 97Google Scholar; L'Education de la démocratie Française, 1897Google Scholar, passim.

page 8 note 1 Bulletin de la Ligue, 1899, pp. 298–99;Google Scholar cf. Gide Economie Sociale, 1903, pp. 281–82.Google Scholar

page 8 note 2 See Congrès International de l'Education Sociale, 26–30 Septembre 1900Google Scholar, 1901; cf. C. Bouglé, Le Solidarisme, Ch. 6; Jagot, H., Le Devoir Social et les Universités Populaires, 1902, pp. 1115.Google Scholar

On Durkheim's conception of solidarity, see my article: “Solidarist Syndicalism: Durkheim and Duguit”, Part I, in: The Sociological Review, VIII, 1960, pp. 1736.Google Scholar

page 8 note 3 pp. 280–84. In a comment upon the Essai d'Education Sociale à l'Ecole by Combes, J. and Pastre, L., p. I, Jules Payot–who himself dedicated his Cours de Morale, 1904Google Scholar, to Léon Bourgeois, “L'Apôtre de la Solidarité”–wrote: “Combien vous avez raison de dédier votre travail à M. Léon Bourgeois, qui a fait sortir de l'Ecole le problème de la solidarité et qui l'a posé au grand jour, créant par le développement de l'opinion publique sur ce point capital la Société d'Education sociale, qui sera, à brève échéance, un des grands organes de la pensée nationale.” On Payot, see Capéran, L., L'Invasion laïque, 1935, pp. 228–31, 244–46.Google Scholar

page 9 note 1 Alliance d'Hygiène Sociale, Aug. 1905, pp. 9699.Google Scholar

page 9 note 2 Bulletin de la Ligue, 1901, pp. 644Google Scholar, 912; cf. Ib., pp. 432, 442 sq., 730, 744, 778–79. At a lecture opening a nation-wide campaign on behalf of a solidarist, lay education, presided over by Léon Bourgeois, Jacquin said to him: “Nous n'avons fait que suivre votre exemple.” (Ib., 1902, p. 6; cf. p. 181 sq.)

page 9 note 3 For Buisson's high opinion of the Swiss Social Protestant philosopher Secrétan, see Buissonés article in: Revue Pédagogique, 15.10.1886, p. 359.Google Scholar Buisson noted on the same page that a copy of Secrétan's La Question Sociale (1886) of which the article was a review, had been placed by order of the Ministry of Education in the libraries of every Ecole Normale! On Secrétan's admiration for Buisson, see Secrétan, L., Secrétan, Charles, sa vie et son oeuvre, 1912, pp. 414–15Google Scholar; cf. p. 374 et seq. On Buisson's Liberal Protestantism in Switzerland in the 1860's, see an autobiographical letter written in 1871, published in Goyau's, G.L'Ecole d'Aujourd'hui, I, 1899, pp. 264–66.Google Scholar On the influence of Quinet upon him, see Buisson's article in the Revue Bleue of 4.2.1888, pp. 136–37.Google Scholar

Gounelle, Pastor, a leading Social Protestant, was an intimate friend of Buisson, whom he described as an assiduous and sympathetic reader of the Revue du Christianisme Social (Revue du Christianisme Social, 1932, pp. 190–92,Google Scholar obituary on Buisson). He was a member of Buisson's “Union des libres penseurs et des libres croyants”, together with other Social Protestants such as Pastor Charles Wagner, Renouvierists like Séailles and co-operativists of the Ecole de Nîmes like Daudé-Bancel. (Besse, R. P. Dom, Les Religions Laïques, 1913, pp. 259–60Google Scholar;cf. p. 254.)

page 10 note 1 Capéran, L., L'Invasion laïque, pp. 224–26.Google Scholar

page 10 note 2 Revue Internationale de l'Enseignement, 1896, pp. 497–98Google Scholar; cf. 501. On Buisson's career, see the article by Petit, E. in: Bulletin de la Ligue de l'Enseignement, 1902, pp. 407–10Google Scholar; A. Pressard, op. cit., pp. 336–37; Marion, , in: La Grande Encyclopédie, VIII, p. 390Google Scholar; Gounelle, in: Revue du Christianisme Social, 1932, pp. 188–89.Google Scholar

page 10 note 3 Pressard, , p. 183Google Scholar; cf. 148, 186, 346. On the exchange of letters between Bourgeois and Buisson, see the Revue Pédagogique, 1892, XXI, pp. 337–45Google Scholar, 389, 399. For an extended account of the collaboration between Buisson and Bourgeois to win the school-teachers over to Social Radicalism, see Goyau, G., L'Ecole d'Aujourd'hui, I, 1899, pp. 161–72.Google Scholar See especially note to p. 169 for Bourgeois' praise of Buisson, e.g. “C'est un fameux maître d'école, allez, même pour les ministres.” (Quotation from Bulletin de la Ligue de l'Enseignement, 1894, p. 287Google Scholar).

That the Solidarist evangel had penetrated a new generation is evident from the following resolution voted at the Second Congress of the “Jeunesses laïques” in 1903. “La Morale laïque doit être scientifique, sociale, humaine. Elle s'appuie sur la raison et sur l'expérience: i° pour garantir et développer la liberté individuelle; 2° pour assurer la justice sociale par le solidarité nationale et internationale des individus et des peuples.” (Weill, G.: Histoire de l'idée laïque au XIXe siècle, p. 319.Google Scholar)

page 11 note 1 Buisson was President of the “Association Nationale des Libres Penseurs de France” which provocatively held its first Congress at Rome in 1904. See L. Capéran, op. cit., p. 161 et seq., 316–21. On June 7th, 1907 was founded the “Union de libres penseurs et de libres croyants pour la culture morale” by a group which included Buisson, F. Dreyfus, W. Monod and electing the Catholic heretic, ex-priest Hyacinthe Loyson, the Protestant economist and pacifist Passy and the rationalist disciple of Renouvier, Séailles as Honorary Presidents. Committee members included another disciple of Renouvier, B. Jacob, and the champion of the Universités Populaires and co-operativist disciple of Gide, Daudé-Bancel, whilst the Social Protestant Gounelle was a member of the permanent committee. (Bulletin Trimestrielle de l'Union de libres penseurs et de libres croyants, Jan.-March, 1908.Google Scholar)

page 11 note 2 The “Ligue Française d'Education Morale” absorbed the “Union pour l'Action Morale”–launched in 1892 by Paul Desjardins and particularly active during the controversy over the Dreyfus Affair–, which changed its title to “Union pour la Vérité” in 1906. Founded in June 1912 by a group, of which Buisson and Charles Wagner were the most active members, the Ligue published an appeal, declaring: “il faut que les hommes de bonne volonté à quelque opinion qu'ils appartiennent, s'entendent en vue de l'action commune sur les points qui leur sont communs” with a view to achieving “dans chaque homme la dignité de la personne humaine et dans la société un idéal de justice et de solidarité fraternelle.” (L'Union Morale, Organe de la Ligue Française d'Education Morale, Oct. 1912, pp. 708.Google Scholar) It quickly rallied to its support a great many champions of the idea of solidarity: the philosophers Alfred Fouillée and Gabriel Séailles, the sociologists Bougié and Worms, the liberal economist Passy and the social economist Charles Gide, the educationists Jules Payot and Edouard Petit, the moralist Paul Desjardins, the social philanthropist Jules Siegfried, the reformist Socialist Fournière, the Social Protestants Elie Gounelle and Charles Wagner and the Radical Parliamentarians Léon Bourgeois and Ferdinand Buisson (Ib., p. 50 et. seq.) Amongst the associations which were members of the League were the “Association Philotechnique” and “La Culture Morale, Union des libres penseurs et des libres croyants” (Ib., p. 58.)

page 12 note 1 Bulletin de la Ligue de l'Enseignement, 1902, p. 405.Google Scholar See Buisson's L'Avenir du Sentiment Religieux, 1923, pp. 2731Google Scholar on the foundation of the “Union pour la Culture Morale” in 1907, its rôle until 1914 and its revival in 1923. See also Sée, H., Histoire de la Ligue des Droits de l'Homme, 1927, pp. 112, 215Google Scholar; cf. 153, 174. L'Union Morale, Organe de la Ligue Française de l'Education Morale, Oct. 1912, pp. 5, 18–22Google Scholar, 110; Goyau, G., L'Idée de Patrie et l'Humanitarisme, pp. 63Google Scholar, 83–84; La Coopération Intellectuelle, 1929, p. 243Google Scholar; Bouglé's, C.Introduction to Un moraliste laïque, Ferdinand Buisson. Pages Choisies, 1935.Google Scholar

page 12 note 2 Pages Choisies, pp. 123Google Scholar, 125, 136 et seq.

page 12 note 3 Buisson, , La Morale Professionelle, p. 23Google Scholar, brochure consisting of a 1907 lecture at the “Ecole des Hautes Etudes Sociales”, also published in the du Mois, Revue III, 10.3.1907, pp. 277–97.Google Scholar Buisson recognised, in La Politique Radicale, that Bourgeois' doctrine of Solidarisai “fournit au radicalisme les données essentielles de sa politique sociale.” (p. 210 et seq. for a vulgarisation of Solidarism. See also “La Solidarité à l'Ecole” in: d'une, Essai Philosophie de la Solidarité, p. 189Google Scholar et seq.)

page 13 note 1 Radicale, La Politique, pp. 235–36Google Scholar; cf. pp. 218 et seq. For the influence of Léon Bourgeois' Solidarist theory of “social debt” on Radical policy, see e.g. Sarraut's, Maurice policy declaration at the Toulouse Congress of 1904 (lb., pp. 310–16).Google Scholar

page 13 note 2 L. Capéran, op, cit., pp. 25–51; cf. pp. 259–62, 271.

page 14 note 1 Gide, C., Economie Sociale, p. 269Google Scholar, note; cf. article by Petit, in: Emancipation, Feb. 1904, p. 28Google Scholar and his contribution to the Second “Congrès d'Education Sociale”, 1907Google Scholar, under the title L'Education Sociale dans l'Enseignement, pp. 3–13. See also L. Capéran, op. cit., pp. 222, 253; French Educational Ideals of To-day, 1919, pp. 219–22Google Scholar, ed. F. Buisson and F. E. Farrington; Petit, E., La vie scolaire, 1907, p. 273Google Scholar et seq. and Pressard, A., Histoire de l'Association Philotechnique, 1898, pp. 366–67.Google Scholar The 1900 Congress on Primary Education had passed the following resolution: “Que les éducateurs de tous les pays aident à la propagation des sociétés de secours mutuels et de retraites entre enfants, afin d'entretenir dans les écoles de toutes les nations le sentiment de la solidarité.” (Bulletin de la Ligue, 1900, p. 912.)Google Scholar

page 15 note 1 de la Ligue, Bulletin, 1898, p. 226Google Scholar; cf. Ib. 1891, pp. 115, 119; 1893, pp. 68–70; 1897, pp. 74–84; 1900, pp. 509–10; Gide, , Economie Sociale, pp. 278–80Google Scholar; Bulletin de L'Union pour l'Action Morale, 15.12.1894, pp. 6465Google Scholar; Mabilleau, L., La Mutualité Française, 1904, pp. 103–12.Google Scholar

page 15 note 2 de la Ligue, Bulletin, 1898, pp. 209–10.Google Scholar It was with Buisson's help–then Director of State Primary Education–that Cavé launched and popularised the friendly society in the schools. See the article by Buisson in: Le Siècle, 4.2.1899, quoted at length by Tur-mann, M. in: L'Education Populaire, 2nd ed., 1904, pp. 2227Google Scholar, a well-documented study of the adult education movement, written from the Social Catholic viewpoint.

On the contrast between the individualist and solidarist conceptions of the friendly society, see F. Alengry's criticism of the Bastiat-inspired book on La Mutualité by F. Lépine which described the “multualité scolaire”, which went beyond mere personal saving and insurance, as a manifestation of “collective theft”, “legal beggary” and the transition to “ultra-socialism”. (See Alengry's, article in: Revue Pédagogique, 1904, I, pp. 257–63Google Scholar).

page 16 note 1 Revue de la Solidarité Sociale, Dec. 1905, p. 284Google Scholar; Solidarité, , p. 78Google Scholar; cf. Politique de Prévoyance, I, pp. 3540, 150–199.Google Scholar Bourgeois suggested (Ib., II, pp. 174–77), functional specialisation between the services provided by voluntary associations and the state, the former concentrating on health and the latter on pensions. The editor of the Revue de la Solidarité Sociale, Lantelme, whilst praising friendly societies for their “éducation solidariste de la classe moyenne, si nombreuse en France et qui demeure si volontiers figée dans la paix opportuniste”, regarded it, like Bourgeois (to whom he explicidy referred) as requiring supplementation by state intervention: “Le progrès naturel de l'idée de solidarité sociale impose à la conscience nationale la nécessité de l'établissement des retraites ouvrières obligatoires.” (Revue de la Solidarité Sociale, May 1905, p. 161Google Scholar; cf. 162–63; lb., Aug. 1905, article on “Solidarité et Mutualisme”, pp. 235–36.Google Scholar)

page 16 note 2 The official support for the friendly society movement is evidenced by the testimony of Cruchon, Préfet of l'Ardèche, who indoctrinated the schoolteachers of each canton in his département, proclaiming that “La mutualité est la forme supérieure de la prévoyance et de la solidarité”; one of the “institutions sociales basées sur la connaissance plus exacte des lois de la solidarité sociale et des moyens d'y conformer les rapports volontaires des citoyens entre eux…Avec de tels citoyens, le XXe siècle ne sera pas le siècle du socialisme; il sera le siècle de l'association, de la coopération, de la mutualité, de la fraternelle solidarité…” (de la Ligue, Bulletin, 1899, pp. 6971Google Scholar). It was such a politically-motivated campaign that led Charles Gide ironically to remark that by comparison with syndicalism “La mutualité cause moins de soucis aux gouvernants: au contraire, elle lui offre l'occasion dans de nombreux congrès et banquets de célébrer les bienfaits de la solidarité.” (Les Sociétés Coopératives de Consommation, p.v. Preface to 2nd ed. 1910.Google Scholar)

page 16 note 3 Mabilleau affirmed: “La mutualité ne vise que les accidents, les revers, les maux de la vie. La pratique de la solidarité ne doit pas s'en tenir la; elle doit s'étendre à l'exercise même de la vie, en ses fonctions essentielles et normales. En ce sens, elle prend le nom de coopération…” (Quoted in Bulletin de la Ligue, 1901, p. 420.Google Scholar) Mabilleau, L., La Mutua-lité Française, 1904, pp. 18,Google Scholar 25–35, 40, 54–55, 67, 82, 153, 183, which ends by describing the friendly society as an “oeuvre de liberté généreuse et de démocratique solidarité” (p. 200). See also, Mabilleau's brochure La Coopération, ses bienfaits et ses limites, 1895.Google Scholar

The 1901 Congress of the League passed the following resolution: “Considérant que les oeuvres post-scolaires sont surtout des oeuvres d'éducation et de solidarité, le Congrès émet le voeu que les coopératives soient établies par leurs soins, qui permettront d'appliquer les principes de la solidarité, de trouver, dans l'emploi des bonis, les ressources nécessaires au développement du lendemain de l'école.” (de la Ligue, Bulletin, 1901, p. 428.)Google Scholar