Hostname: page-component-745bb68f8f-d8cs5 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-01-27T13:00:41.479Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Women and Globalization: A Study of 180 Countries, 1975–2000

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 April 2006

Mark M. Gray ,
Miki Caul Kittilson  and
Wayne Sandholtz
Mark M. Gray
Affiliation:
Georgetown University's Center for Applied Research in the Apostolate, Washington, D.C., [email protected]
Miki Caul Kittilson
Affiliation:
Arizona State University, Tempe, [email protected]
Wayne Sandholtz
Affiliation:
University of California, Irvine, [email protected]
Get access

Abstract

How do rising levels of international interconnectedness affect social, economic, and political conditions for women? Research on gender and international relations frequently offers clear propositions but seldom submits them to broad, quantitative testing. This article begins to fill that gap. We advance the hypothesis that, on balance and over time, increasing cross-national exchange and communication lead to improvements in women's status and equality. Economic aspects of globalization can bring new opportunities and resources to women. But equally important, globalization promotes the diffusion of ideas and norms of equality for women. In an analysis of 180 countries from 1975 to 2000, employing cross-sectional–time-series regression techniques, we examine the impact of several measures of globalization on women's levels of life expectancy, literacy, and participation in the economy and parliamentary office. International trade, foreign direct investment, membership in the United Nations (UN) and World Bank, and ratification of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), are associated with improved conditions for women.A grant from the Center for Global Peace and Conflict Studies at the University of California, Irvine, supported this research. The authors are grateful for constructive comments from participants in the faculty research colloquium of the Department of Political Science at Brigham Young University. The authors also received helpful suggestions from their fellow panelists at the 2004 Annual Meetings of the American Political Science Association and from the editor of IO, Lisa Martin, and two anonymous reviewers.

Type
Research Article
Information
International Organization , Volume 60 , Issue 2 , April 2006 , pp. 293 - 333
Copyright
© 2006 The IO Foundation and Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Afshar, Haleh, ed. 1998. Women and Empowerment: The Politics of Development. Basingstoke, England: Macmillan.
Afshar, Haleh, and Stephanie Barrientos. 1999. Introduction: Women, Globalization, and Fragmentation. In Women, Globalization, and Fragmentation in the Developing World, edited by Haleh Afshar and Stephanie Barrientos, 1–17. New York: St. Martin's.
Afshar, Haleh, and Carolyne Dennis, eds. 1992. Women and Adjustment Policies in the Third World. Basingstoke, England: Macmillan.
Ahmed, Manzoor. 1992. Literacy in a Larger Context. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 520 (March):32–35.Google Scholar
Apodaca, Clair. 1998. Measuring Women's Economic and Social Rights Achievement. Human Rights Quarterly 20 (1):139–72.Google Scholar
Atkeson, Lonna Rae. 2003. Not All Cues Are Created Equal: The Conditional Impact of Female Candidates on Political Engagement. Journal of Politics 65 (4):1040–61.Google Scholar
Baltagi, Badi, and Qi Li. 1990. A Lagrange Multiplier Test for Error Components Model with Incomplete Panels. Econometric Reviews 9 (1):103–107.Google Scholar
Banks, Arthur S. 2000. Cross-National Time-Series Data Archive. Binghamton, N.Y.: Databanks International.
Barrett, David, George Kurian, and Todd Johnson. 2001. World Christian Encyclopedia: A Comparative Study of Churches and Religions in the Modern World. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Beck, Nathaniel, and Jonathan Katz. 1995. What to Do (and Not to Do) with Time-Series Cross-Section Data. American Political Science Review 89 (3):634–47.Google Scholar
Beckwith, Karen. 1992. Comparative Research and Electoral Systems: Lessons from France and Italy. Women & Politics 12 (4):1–33.Google Scholar
Belloc, Nedra Bartlett. 1950. Labor-Force Participation and Employment Opportunities for Women. Journal of the American Statistical Association 45 (251):400–10.Google Scholar
Benería, Lourdes, and Shelley Feldman, eds. 1992. Unequal Burden: Economic Crises, Persistent Poverty, and Women's Work. Manchester, England: Manchester University Press.
Bernard, Jesse. 1987. The Female World from a Global Perspective. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Bongaarts, John, and Griffith Feeney. 2002. How Long Do We Live? Population and Development Review 28 (1):13–29.Google Scholar
Breusch, Trevor, and Adrian Pagan. 1980. The Lagrange Multiplier Test and Its Applications to Model Specification in Econometrics. Review of Economic Studies 47 (1):239–53.Google Scholar
Brysk, Alison. 2005. Global Good Samaritans? Human Rights Policy in Costa Rica. Global Governance 11 (4):445–66.Google Scholar
Carceles, Gabriel. 1990. World Literacy Prospects at the Turn of the Century: Is the Objective of Literacy for All by the Year 2000 Statistically Plausible? Comparative Education Review 34 (1):4–20.Google Scholar
Celik, Yasemin. 2004. The Effect of the CEDAW on Women's Rights in Turkey. Paper presented at the 100th Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, Chicago, September.
Cichowski, Rachel. 2001. Judicial Rulemaking and the Institutionalization of EU Sex Equality Policy. In The Institutionalization of Europe, edited by Alec Stone Sweet, Wayne Sandholtz, and Neil Fligstein, 113–36. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Cichowski, Rachel. 2002. Women's Transnational Activism and the Evolution of European Sex Equality Policy. In Women's Activism and Globalization, edited by Nancy Naples and Manisha Desai, 220–38. New York: Routledge.
Clark, Robert, and Richard Anker. 1993. Cross-National Analysis of Labor Force Participation of Older Men and Women. Economic Development and Cultural Change 41 (3):489–512.Google Scholar
Clark, Roger, Thomas W. Ramsbey, and Emily Stier Adler. 1991. Culture, Gender, and Labor Force Participation: A Cross-National Study. Gender and Society 5 (1):47–66.Google Scholar
Collver, Andrew, and Eleanor Langlois. 1962. The Female Labor Force in Metropolitan Areas: An International Comparison. Economic Development and Cultural Change 10 (4):367–85.Google Scholar
Cook, Chris, and Whitney Walker. 2001. The Facts on File World Political Almanac: From 1945 to the Present. New York: Checkmark Books/Facts on File.
Cooney, Rosemary Santana. 1975. Female Professional Work Opportunities: A Cross-National Study. Demography 12 (1):107–20.Google Scholar
Coriden, James A., Thomas J. Green, and Donald E. Heintschel, eds. 1985. The Code of Canon Law: A Text and Commentary. New York: Paulist Press/Canon Law Society of America.
Cortell, Andrew P., and James W. Davis Jr. 1996. How Do International Institutions Matter? The Domestic Impact of International Rules and Norms. International Studies Quarterly 40 (4):451–78.Google Scholar
Cortell, Andrew P., and James W. Davis Jr. 2000. Understanding the Domestic Impact of International Norms: A Research Agenda. International Studies Review 2 (1):65–87.Google Scholar
Cotter, David A., Joan M. Hermsen, and Reeve Vanneman. 2001. Women's Work and Working Women: The Demand for Female Labor. Gender and Society 15 (3):429–52.Google Scholar
Darcy, R., Susan Welch, and Janet Clark. 1994. Women, Elections, and Representation. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
Dau-Schmidt, Kenneth G. 1996. Dividing the Surplus: Will Globalization Give Women a Larger or Smaller Share of the Benefits of Cooperative Production? Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies 4 (1):51–58.Google Scholar
Duverger, Maurice. 1955. The Political Role of Women. Paris: UN Economic and Social Council.
Eckstein, Harry. 1988. A Culturalist Theory of Political Change. American Political Science Review 82 (3):789–804.Google Scholar
Elgström, Ole. 2000. Norm Negotiations: The Construction of New Norms Regarding Gender and Development in EU Foreign Aid Policy. Journal of European Public Policy 7 (3):457–76.Google Scholar
Ellis, Evelyn. 1998. European Community Sex Equality Law. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Elson, Diane, ed. 1995. Male Bias in the Development Process. Manchester, England: Manchester University Press.
Engels, Friedrich. [1884] 1942. The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State. Reprint, New York: International Publishers.
Enloe, Cynthia. 1990. Bananas, Beaches & Bases: Making Feminist Sense of International Politics. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Finnemore, Martha. 1993. International Organizations as Teachers of Norms: The United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization and Science Policy. International Organization 47 (4):565–97.Google Scholar
Freedom House. 2003. Annual Survey of Freedom Country Scores 1972–73 to 1999–00. Available at 〈http://www.freedomhouse.org/ratings/index.htm〉. Accessed 23 January 2006.
Gladden, Kathleen. 1993. Women in the Global Economy: A Case Study of Garment Workers in Colombia. Michigan State University, Women and International Development Program Working Paper 236.
Goetz, Anne Marie, ed. 1997. Getting Institutions Right for Women in Development. New York: St. Martin's Press.
Gould, William. 2001. Interpreting the Intercept in the Fixed-Effects Model. StataCorp. Available at 〈http://www.stata.com/support/faqs/stat/xtreg2.html〉. Accessed 23 January 2006.
Greider, William. 1997. One World, Ready or Not: The Manic Logic of Global Capitalism. New York: Simon & Schuster.
Hafner-Burton, Emilie, and Mark A. Pollack. 2002. Mainstreaming Gender in Global Governance. European Journal of International Relations 8 (3):339–73.Google Scholar
Hausman, Jerry. 1978. Specification Tests in Econometrics. Econometrica 46 (6):1251–71.Google Scholar
Heston, Alan, Robert Summers, and Bettina Aten. 2002. Penn World Table Version 6.1. Philadelphia: Center for International Comparisons at the University of Pennsylvania.
Higer, Amy J. 1999. International Women's Activism and the 1994 Cairo Population Conference. In Gender Politics in Global Governance, edited by Mary K. Meyer and Elisabeth Prügl, 122–41. Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield.
High-Pippert, Angela, and John Comer. 1998. Female Empowerment: The Influence of Women Representing Women. Women & Politics 19 (4):51–66.Google Scholar
Hoskyns, Catherine. 1996. Integrating Gender. London: Verso.
Inglehart, Ronald. 1990. Culture Shift in Advanced Industrial Society. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
Inglehart, Ronald. 1997. Modernization and Postmodernization: Cultural, Economic, and Political Change in 43 Societies. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
Inglehart, Ronald, and Pippa Norris. 2003. Rising Tide: Gender Equality and Cultural Change Around the World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
International-Parliamentary Union. 1995. Women in Parliaments 1945–1995: A World Statistical Survey. Geneva: International-Parliamentary Union.
International-Parliamentary Union. 2003. Women in National Parliaments. Available at 〈http://www.ipu.org/wmn-e/world.htm〉. Accessed 23 January 2006.
Joachim, Jutta. 2003. Framing Issues and Seizing Opportunities: The UN, NGOs, and Women's Rights. International Studies Quarterly 47 (2):247–74.Google Scholar
Johnston, Jack, and John DiNardo. 1997. Econometric Methods. New York: McGraw Hill.
Jupille, Joseph, and James Caporaso. 2001. The Europeanization of Gender Equality Policy and Domestic Structural Change. In Transforming Europe: Europeanization and Domestic Change, edited by Maria Green Cowles, James Caporaso, and Thomas Risse, 21–43. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press.
Kardam, Nuket. 1991. Bringing Women In: Women's Issues in International Development. Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner.
Keck, Margaret E., and Kathryn Sikkink. 1998. Activists Beyond Borders: Advocacy Networks in International Politics. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press.
Koh, Harold Hongju. 1998. The 1998 Frankel Lecture: Bringing International Law Home. Houston Law Review 35 (3):623–81.Google Scholar
Lakeman, Enid. 1994. Comparing Political Opportunities in Great Britain and Ireland. In Electoral Systems in Comparative Perspective, edited by Wilma Rule and Joseph Zimmerman, 45–53. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press.
Levidow, Les. 1996. Women Who Make the Chips. In Women, Work, and Gender Relations in Developing Countries: A Global Perspective, edited by Parvin Ghorayshi and Claire Bélanger, 43–56. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood.
Lorentzen, Lois Ann, and Jennifer Turpin. 1996. Introduction: The Gendered New World Order. In The Gendered New World Order: Militarism, Development, and the Environment, edited by Lois Ann Lorentzen and Jennifer Turpin, 1–12. New York: Routledge.
Mason, Karen Oppenheim. 1986. The Status of Women: Conceptual and Methodological Issues in Demographic Studies. Sociological Forum 1 (2):284–300.Google Scholar
Matland, Richard E. 1993. Institutional Variables Affecting Female Representation in National Legislatures: The Case of Norway. Journal of Politics 55 (3):737–755.Google Scholar
Matland, Richard E., and Donley T. Studlar. 1996. The Contagion of Women Candidates in Single-Member District and Proportional Representation Systems: Canada and Norway. Journal of Politics 58 (3):707–33.Google Scholar
Meier, Kenneth J., Warren S. Eller, Robert D. Wrinkle, and J. L. Polinard. 2001. Zen and the Art of Policy Analysis: A Response to Nielsen and Wolf. Journal of Politics 63 (2):616–29.Google Scholar
Meyer, Mary K. 1999. Negotiating International Norms: The Inter-American Commission of Women and the Convention on Violence Against Women. In Gender Politics in Global Governance, edited by Mary K. Meyer and Elisabeth Prügl, 58–71. Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield.
Mies, Maria. 1996. Women, Food, and Global Trade. Bielefeld, Germany: Institut für Theorie und Praxis der Subsistenz.
Miller, Alice M. 1999. Realizing Women's Human Rights: Nongovernmental Organizations and the United Nations Treaty Bodies. In Gender Politics in Global Governance, edited by Mary K. Meyer and Elisabeth Prügl, 161–76. Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield.
Mills, Mary Beth. 1999. Thai Women in the Global Labor Force. New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press.
Milner, Helen V., and Robert O. Keohane. 1996. Internationalization and Domestic Politics: An Introduction. In Internationalization and Domestic Politics, edited by Robert O. Keohane and Helen V. Milner, 3–24. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Moghadam, Valentine. 1999. Gender and Globalization: Female Labor and Women's Mobilization. Journal of World Systems Research 5 (2):367–88.Google Scholar
Murphy, Josette. 1997. Mainstreaming Gender in World Bank Lending. Washington, D.C.: World Bank.
Naples, Nancy, and Manisha Desai, eds. 2002. Women's Activism and Globalization. New York: Routledge.
Nelson, Barbara, and Najma Chowdhury. 1994. Women and Politics Worldwide. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Norris, Pippa. 1993. Conclusions. In Gender and Party Politics, edited by Joni Lovenduski and Pippa Norris, 309–30. London: Sage Publications.
Norris, Pippa. 1996. Legislative Recruitment. In Comparing Democracies: Elections and Voting in Global Perspectives, edited by Lawrence LeDuc, Richard Niemi, and Pippa Norris, 184–216. London: Sage Publications.
Oakes, A., and Elizabeth Almquist. 1993. Women in National Legislatures: A Cross-National Test of Macrostructural Gender Theories. Population Research and Policy Review 12 (1):71–81.Google Scholar
O'Brien, Joanne, and Martin Palmer. 1993. The State of Religion Atlas. New York: Touchstone.
O'Regan, Valerie. 2000. Gender Matters: Female Policymakers' Influence in Industrialized Nations. Westport, Conn.: Praeger.
Paxton, Pamela. 1997. Women in National Legislatures: A Cross-National Analysis. Social Science Research 26 (4):442–64.Google Scholar
Perl, Paul. 2006. Are Former Catholic Women Over-Represented Among Protestant Clergy? Sociology of Religion 66 (4):359–80.Google Scholar
Pettman, Jan Jindy. 1996. Worlding Women: A Feminist International Politics. New York: Routledge.
Pollack, Mark A., and Emilie Hafner-Burton. 2000. Mainstreaming Gender in the European Union. Journal of European Public Policy 7 (3):432–56.Google Scholar
Prakash, Aseem, and Jeffrey A. Hart. 1999. Globalization and Governance: An Introduction. In Globalization and Governance, edited by Aseem Prakash and Jeffrey A. Hart, 1–24. London: Routledge.
Prügl, Elisabeth, and Mary K. Meyer. 1999. Gender Politics in Global Governance. In Gender Politics in Global Governance, edited by Mary K. Meyer and Elisabeth Prügl, 3–16. Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield.
Ram, Rati. 1998. Forty Years of the Life Span Revolution: An Exploration of the Roles of “Convergence,” Income and Policy. Economic Development and Cultural Change 46 (4):849–57.Google Scholar
Reynolds, Andrew. 1999. Women in the Legislatures and Executives of the World: Knocking at the Highest Glass Ceiling. World Politics 51 (4):547–72.Google Scholar
Rodgers, G. B. 1979. Income and Inequality as Determinants of Mortality: An International Cross-Section Analysis. Population Studies 33 (2):343–51.Google Scholar
Rodrik, Dani. 1997. Has Globalization Gone Too Far? Washington, D.C.: Institute for International Economics.
Rojas, Roberto. 2001. Los Derechos Humanos en la Política Exterior Costarricense. Revista Costarricense de Política Exterior 1 (1):5–14.Google Scholar
Rule, Wilma. 1987. Electoral Systems, Contextual Factors, and Women's Opportunity for Election to Parliament in Twenty-Three Democracies. Western Political Quarterly 40 (3):477–98.Google Scholar
Rule, Wilma, and Joseph Zimmerman. 1994. Electoral Systems in Comparative Perspective: Their Impact on Women and Minorities. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press.
Sandholtz, Wayne, and Mark M. Gray. 2003. International Integration and National Corruption. International Organization 57 (4):761–800.Google Scholar
Sassen, Saskia. 1996. Toward a Feminist Analytics of the Global Economy. Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies 4 (1):7–42.Google Scholar
Sassen, Saskia. 1998. Globalization and Its Discontents. New York: New Press.
Schwartz, Nancy L. 1988. The Blue Guitar: Political Representation and Community. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Semyonov, Moshe. 1980. The Social Context of Women's Labor Force Participation: A Comparative Analysis. American Journal of Sociology 86 (3):534–50.Google Scholar
Sforza, Michele. 1999. Globalization, the Multilateral Agreement on Investment, and the Increasing Economic Marginalization of Women. Washington, D.C.: Preamble Center.
Simmons, Beth. 2004. International Law Compliance and Human Rights. Paper presented at the 45th Annual Meeting of the International Studies Association, Montreal, Canada, March.
Singh, Ajit, and Ann Zammit. 2000. International Capital Flows: Identifying the Gender Dimension. World Development 28 (7):1249–68.Google Scholar
Smith, David A., Dorothy J. Solinger, and Steven C. Topik. 1999. Introduction. In States and Sovereignty in the Global Economy, edited by David A. Smith, Dorothy J. Solinger, and Steven C. Topik, 1–19. London: Routledge.
Standing, Guy. 1989. Global Feminization Through Flexible Labor. World Development 17 (7):1077–95.Google Scholar
Stienstra, Deborah. 2000. Dancing Resistance from Rio to Beijing: Transnational Women's Organizing and UN Conferences 1992–6. In Gender and Global Restructuring, edited by Marianne Marchand and Anne Sisson Runyan, 209–24. London: Routledge.
Stimson, James. 1985. Regression in Space and Time: A Statistical Essay. American Journal of Political Science 29 (4):914–947.Google Scholar
Stromquist, Nelly P. 1990. Women and Illiteracy: The Interplay of Gender Subordination and Poverty. Comparative Education Review 34 (1):95–111.Google Scholar
Sweeney, Shawna E. 2004. Global Transformations, National Institutions, and Women's Rights: A Cross-National Comparative Analysis. Paper presented at the 100th Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, Chicago, September.
Tinker, Irene. 1999. Nongovernmental Organizations: An Alternative Power Base for Women? In Gender Politics in Global Governance, edited by Mary K. Meyer and Elisabeth Prügl, 88–104. Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield.
True, Jacqui, and Michael Mintrom. 2001. Transnational Networks and Policy Diffusion: The Case of Gender Mainstreaming. International Studies Quarterly 45 (1):27–57.Google Scholar
UNAIDS: Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS. 2003. UNAIDS. Available at 〈http://www.unaids.org〉. Accessed 23 January 2006.
United Nations. 1988. Compendium of International Conventions Concerning the Status of Women. Doc. No. ST/CSDHA/3. New York: United Nations.
United Nations. 1999. United Nations Women's Indicators and Statistics Database. Wistat Version-4, CD-ROM. New York: UN.
United Nations. 2003. Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women: States Parties. Available at 〈http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/states.htm〉. Accessed 23 January 2006.
United Nations. 2005. Growth in United Nations Membership, 1945–2005. Available at 〈http://www.un.org/overview/growth.htm〉. Accessed 23 January 2006.
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. 2005. Foreign Direct Investment Database. Available at 〈http://www.unctad.org〉. Accessed 23 January 2006.
United Nations Development Programme. 1995. Human Development Report 1995. New York: Oxford University Press.
United Nations Development Programme. 1999. Human Development Report 1999. New York: Oxford University Press.
United Nations Division for the Advancement of Women. 2005. Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women. Available at 〈http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/〉. Accessed 23 January 2006.
United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS. 1998. The United Nations on the Impact of HAIV/AIDS on Adult Mortality in Sub-Saharan Africa. Population and Development Review 24 (3):655–58.Google Scholar
Wade, Robert. 1996. Globalization and Its Limits: Reports of the Death of the National Economy are Greatly Exaggerated. In National Diversity and Global Capitalism, edited by Suzanne Berger and Ronald Dore, 60–88. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press.
Ward, Kathryn, ed. 1990. Women Workers and Global Restructuring. Ithaca, N.Y.: ILR Press.
Waylen, Georgina. 1996. Gender in Third World Politics. Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner.
Weiss, Anita. 2003. Interpreting Islam and Women's Rights. International Sociology 18 (3):581–600.Google Scholar
Weldon, S. Laurel. 2002. Protest, Policy, and the Problem of Violence Against Women: A Cross-National Comparison. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press.
Wendt, Alexander. 1999. Social Theory of International Politics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
West, Lois A. 1999. The United Nations Women's Conferences and Feminist Politics. In Gender Politics in Global Governance, edited by Mary K. Meyer and Elisabeth Prügl, 177–93. Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield.
Wilensky, Harold. 1968. Women's Work: Economic Growth, Ideology and Social Structure. Industrial Relations 7:235–52.Google Scholar
Wilson, Chris. 2001. On the Scale of Global Demographic Convergence 1950–2000. Population and Development Review 27 (1):155–71.Google Scholar
World Bank. 2000. The World Development Indicators 2000. Washington, D.C.: World Bank.
World Bank. 2006. Member Countries. Available at 〈http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTABOUTUS/0,,contentMDK:50004946∼menuPK:271153∼pagePK:34542∼piPK:36600∼theSitePK:29708,00.html〉. Accessed 23 January 2006.
Wright, Shelley. 1995. Women and the Global Economic Order: A Feminist Perspective. American University Journal of International Law and Policy 10 (2):861–87.Google Scholar
Youngs, Gillian. 2000. Embodied Political Economy or and Escape from Disembodied Knowledge. In Political Economy, Power and the Body: Global Perspectives, edited by Gillian Youngs, 11–30. Houndmills, England: Macmillan Press.