¹ UNESCO, Records of the General Conference, Thirteenth Session, Paris, 1964 (Paris: UNESCO, 1965), Resolution No. 4.2261, pp. 75–76Google Scholar.

² It is not necessary here to underline the differences between national ministries and UN functional agencies in their scope and methods of dealing with the respective subjects.

³ For a brief summary of the theory behind this statement see Claude, Inis L. Jr, Swords into Plowshares: The Problems and Progress of International Organization (New York: Random House, 1959), pp. 379 ffGoogle Scholar.

For a succinct overview of the relationships between the various agencies of the UN system and between functional agencies and the parent organization both in the League and the UN systems see Evans, Luther H., “The United Nations Family of Agencies: Origins and Relationships,” in Cordier, Andrew W. and Foote, Wilder (ed.), The Quest for Peace: The Dag Hammarskjöld Memorial Lectures (New York: Columbia University Press, 1965), pp. 355–382Google Scholar.

⁴ Sathyamurthy, T. V., Politics of International Cooperation: Contrasting Conceptions of U.N.E.S.C.O. (Geneva and Paris: Librairie Droz, 1964), pp. 51–55Google Scholar; Wagenen, Richard W. Van, Research in the International Organization Field: Some Notes on a Possible Focus (Princeton, N.J: Center for Research on World Political Institutions, Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs, 1952), pp. 8 ff.Google Scholar; and Wagenen, Richard W. Van, “The Concept of Community and the Future of the United Nations,” International Organization, Summer 1965 (Vol. 19, No. 3), pp. 812–827Google Scholar.

Karl Deutsch has done extensive work on integration at a regional level. For example, see Deutsch, Karl W. and others, Political Community at the International Level: Problems of Definition and Measurement (Garden City, N.Y: Doubleday, 1954)Google Scholar; Deutsch, Karl W. and others, Political Community and the North Atlantic Area: International Organization in the Light of Historical Experience (Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press, 1957)Google Scholar; and Deutsch, Karl W., “Integration and Arms Control in the European Political Environment: A Summary Report,” American Political Science Review, 06 1966 (Vol. 60, No. 2), pp. 354–365Google Scholar. During the last decade Professor Deutsch has been engaged in an effort to study integration processes in the European (Western) international system from a more rigorous and quantitative angle. Some of his results are expected to appear in the form of books during this year. See Deutsch, Karl W., “Recent Trends in Research Methods in Political Science,” in Charlesworth, James C. (ed.), A Design for Political Science: Scope, Objectives, and Methods (Philadelphia, Penna: American Academyof Political and Social Science, 12 1966), pp. 149–178 (especially footnote 18 on page 157)Google Scholar.

Also see Rusk, Dean, “The First Twenty-Five Years of the United Nations: San Francisco to the 1970s,” in Cordier, and Foote, , pp. 67–81Google Scholar.

⁵ Grégoire, Roger, National Administration and International Organization (Brussels: International Institute of Administrative Sciences, n.d.), pp. 21–22Google Scholar.

⁶ The most noteworthy contribution to the whole field of functional international organization is the recently published treatise centering on ILO. See Haas, Ernst B., Beyond the Nation-State: Functionalism and International Organization (Stanford, Calif: Stanford University Press, 1964)Google Scholar. A very perceptive critique of this work has recently been published. See Rosenau, James N., “Transforming the International System: Small Increments Along a Vast Periphery,” World Politics, 04 1966 (Vol. 18, No. 3), pp. 525–545Google Scholar.

⁷ With the exception of one book by the author of this article (see footnote 4 above) all the full-length books so far published have been written by men who have been officially connected with the Organization, either as members of their national delegations (e.g., George N. Shuster of the United States) or as members of the Secretariat (e.g., Walter H. C. Laves [United States] and Jean Thomas [France]). Even a large percentage of the literature available from periodical sources has been written by diose with official connections with UNESCO. See Shuster, George N., UNESCO: Assessment and Promise (New York: Harper & Row [for Council on Foreign Relations], 1963)Google Scholar; Laves, Walter H. C. and Thomson, Charles A., UNESCO: Purpose, Progress, Prospects (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1957)Google Scholar; and Thomas, Jean, U.N.E.S.C.O. (Paris: Gallimard, 1962)Google Scholar.

⁸ Albert Thomas (1919–1932).

⁹ The late Dag Hammarskjöld and U Thant in particular.

¹⁰ Preamble to the Constitution of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.

¹¹ The Executive Board, however, refused to approve Huxley's evolutionary humanism as an official UNESCO statement.

¹² UNESCO Document 3C/110, Vol. I, pp. 164–167.

¹³ UNESCO, Report of the Director General on the Activities of the Organization in 1948 Presented to the Third Session of the General Conference, November–December 1948 (Paris: UNESCO, 1948), pp. 27–30Google Scholar.

¹⁴ Tripp, Brenda M. H., “UNESCO in Perspective,” International Conciliation, 03 1954 (No. 497), pp. 323–383Google Scholar.

¹⁵ Torres Bodet's speeches (especially those addressed to National Commissions) can be found in the early issues of UNESCO Courier and in the UNESCO documents of the third, fourth, and fifth meetings as well as the second extraordinary meeting of the General Conference.

¹⁶ The Universal Declaration of Human Rights has been accorded a very great importance throughout the history of UNESCO. Plans are already afoot for a suitable celebration of the twentieth anniversary of the Declaration on December 10, 1968. The thirteenth General Conference of UNESCO specifically instructed the Director-General to bear this fact in mind in drawing up the program and budget for 1967 and 1968.

¹⁷ In actual fact UNESCO was requested to engage only in token tasks of educational rehabilitation in Korea. The scale of participation of UNESCO in the total UN activity in the Korean crisis was microscopic compared with its involvement during the Congo crisis.

¹⁸ UNESCO Document 7/C Proceedings, pp. 148 ff.; pp. 53 ff.

¹⁹ Ibid., p. 212.

²⁰ Evans, Luther H., “Some Management Problems of UNESCO,” International Organization, Winter 1963 (Vol. 17, No. 1), pp. 76–90Google Scholar.

²¹ In the field of extrabudgetary sources of technical assistance alone UNESCO's share increased from about $1 million in 1949 to nearly $4.5 million in 1958. During the same period the regular annual budget of UNESCO increased from about $7 million to $13 million. In 1962 funds available to UNESCO as a result of its participation in the Expanded Program of Technical Assistance (EPTA) for educational work alone amounted to $6.5 million for one year. (See Shuster, p. 46.)

²² E.g., the Universal Copyright Convention, the Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict, and the Agreement on the Importation of Educational, Scientific and Cultural Materials. These conventions as well as similar agreements between members of the various specialized agencies, which are increasing in volume, have attracted the attention of some students of international law. Jenks, Friedmann, and Niemeyer—each in his own way—have developed some theoretical insights into a whole new aspect of the theory of law which Haas in his recent book refers to as a “functional theory of law” (pp. 40–47). See also Jenks, C. Wilfred, The Common Law of Mankind (London: Stevens & Sons Limited, 1958)Google Scholar; Friedmann, Wolfgang, Law in a Changing Society (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1959)Google Scholar; Jessup, Philip C., Transnational Law (New Haven, Conn: Yale University Press, 1956)Google Scholar; and Niemeyer, Gerhart, Law Without Force: The Function of Politics in International Law (Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press, 1941)Google Scholar.

²³ The UN Special Fund was created only a year after Evans retired; and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) had accepted the importance of education and hence the relevance of UNESCO as a collaborating agency. (See Shuster, pp. 57 ff.)

²⁴ Evans, , International Organization, Vol. 17, No. 1, pp. 76–90Google Scholar; and Sathyamurthy, pp. 129–130.

²⁵ Sathyamurthy, pp. 122–132; and Evans, , International Organization, Vol. 17, No. 1, pp. 82–85Google Scholar.

²⁶ See UNESCO Document UNESCO/DG/212, December 5, 1958.

²⁷ See Sathyamurthy, pp. 132–135.

²⁸ Although he was appointed to the Director-Generalship of UNESCO at the General Conference session in 1962, he had acted (alternately with his deputy, M. S. Adiseshiah of India) in that capacity since 1960 onward. He had started his career in UNESCO as a P. 4 officer in the mass communications section in 1946.

²⁹ UNESCO's membership rose to 120 in 1965. It should also be noted diat Maheu had formed close associations with both the higher administrative officials of the UN and national delegations to the UN Headquarters during his tenure in New York as UNESCO's representative at the UN in the mid-fifties. In fact, he was the first official of UNESCO to raise the level of representation of a specialized agency at the UN to a very high quality. His contacts during that period have stood him in very good stead in his direction of UNESCO. For example, see UNESCO, Records of the General Conference, Twelfth session, Paris 1962 (Paris: UNESCO, 1964), passimGoogle Scholar.

³⁰ Before entering UNESCO he had served as a member of the French overseas civil service in which he rose to the position of chef de cabinet of the Moroccan government.

³¹ Maheu knew more about UNESCO than any national delegate or even member of the Executive Board. The Director-General is the only centripetal force in the UN system of specialized agencies as it has developed during the last two decades.

³² The author spent nearly three months in 1966 as Special Consultant to the Director-General of UNESCO.

³³ Se Shuster, passim.

³⁴ Canadian National Commission for UNESCO, Dialogue 1963, Theme: International Cooperation and the Development of Nations (hereinafter cited as Dialogue 1965) (Montreal: Canadian National Commission for Unesco, 1965), p. 87Google Scholar.

³⁵ Ibid., p. 13.

³⁶ The first occasion on which the developing nations combined together almost spontaneously to demonstrate their formidable influence was provided by the UN Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD). In his discussion of what he calls the “North-South” conflict (as opposed to the East-West conflict) Maheu refers to UNCTAD as a “landmark in contemporary history” which “gives aid for development a significance it did not have five or six years ago” and which “affects international relations as a whole.” (Ibid., p. 196.)

³⁷ Ward, Barbara, “The United Nations and the Decade of Development,” in Cordier, and Foote, , pp. 201–226Google Scholar.

³⁸ UNESCO, Report of the Director-General on the Activities of the Organization in 1961 (Paris: UNESCO, 1962), p. XVIIGoogle Scholar.

³⁹ The author during his recent connection with UNESCO had the opportunity of interviewing several highly placed officials who are in constant personal touch with political leaders in the “third world.” One of the officials interviewed was of the opinion that the impatience of a number of leaders of different countries with the growing absorption of UNESCO in technical tasks to the exclusion of conscious peacebuilding activities (or what would in Huxleyan terms be interpreted as medium-range tasks oriented toward world peace through education, science, and culture) was noticeable. On the one hand, the Organization has definitely acquired an assured legitimacy of purpose in the eyes of these leaders. On the other, they are beginning to doubt its continued usefulness if it were to persist in its now well-worn path of concrete achievements without diversifying its activities to include specific programs consciously directed toward the establishment of peace.

⁴⁰ Maheu, René, “The Significance and Value of International Cooperation for Development,” in Dialogue 1965, pp. 194–203Google Scholar.

⁴¹ The late Ambassador Adlai Stevenson worked out this theme in some detail in his Hammarskjöld Memorial Address at Princeton University. See Stevenson, Adlai E., “From Containment to Cease-fire and Peaceful Change,” in Cordier, and Foote, , pp. 51–66Google Scholar.

⁴² The term “function” is used here advisedly to exclude any suggestion of “authority.”

⁴³ Foote, Wilder (ed.), Dag Hammarskjöld: The Servant of Peace (New York: Harper & Row, 1963), passimGoogle Scholar.

⁴⁴ Goodrich, Leland M., “The Maintenance of International Peace and Security,” International Organization, Summer 1965 (Vol. 19, No. 3), pp. 429–443Google Scholar; and Claude, Inis L. Jr, “Implications and Questions for the Future,” International Organization, Summer 1965 (Vol. 19, No. 3), pp. 835–846Google Scholar.

Even in the case of Vietnam the fact that the Secretary-General has made several statements regarding the conflict would indicate UN involvement, admittedly of a peripheral nature, in efforts to resolve the tensions.

⁴⁵ According to one commentator this difficulty persists even today, and UNESCO's achievements have acquired increasing importance not because this area has been successfully clarified but in spite of failure to define it. See Laves', Walter H. C. review of the author's The Politics of International Cooperation: Contrasting Conceptions of U.N.E.S.C.O. in American Political Science Review, 06 1966 (Vol. 60, No. 2), pp. 453–454Google Scholar.

⁴⁸ For example,

of the 23,655 people permanently employed by the United Nations and its family of agencies, some 22,560—well over 90%—are occupied in peace-building, through quiet and continuing efforts to help die low income nations improve the welfare of their peoples.

(Hoffman, Paul G., “The Tensions of Inequality,” in Dialogue 1965, pp. 6–15Google Scholar; see also his “Forms and Functions of Development Assistance,” in Cordier, and Foote, , pp. 227–239Google Scholar.)

⁴⁷ “It is in the minds of men that the defences of peace must be constructed.” (Italics supplied.)

⁴⁸ To be sure, UN peacekeeping operations have during recent years been die subject of controversy which has resulted in disputes over the financial obligations of Members to the Organization. Claude, in a closely argued article in an earlier issue of this journal, has pointed out that dissensions between Member States over the peacekeeping functions and activities of the UN have tended to affect the financial prospects of organs responsible for peacebuilding activities. See Claude's article cited in footnote 44, especially pp. 839–840.

⁴⁹ See, for example, UNESCO Chronicle, 11 1955 (Vol. 1, No. 5), p. 6Google Scholar; and UNESCO Courier, 10 1955 (Vol. 8, No. 3), p. 14Google Scholar.

The interest of UNESCO in atomic energy matters might well be regarded as a factor in the subsequent creation of another UN agency, viz, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). See Sathyamurthy, p. 123.

⁵⁰ After nearly five years of discussion ECOSOC authorized the Secretary-General to commission an expert study group to produce a detailed report on the economic and social consequences of disarmament. (See UN Document E/3593/Rev.1.)

⁵¹ That the separation between technical and political spheres of discussion is artificial is best brought out in Gilpin's, RobertAmerican Scientists and Nuclear Weapons Policy (Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press, 1962)Google Scholar. For the argument that with the accumulation of experience in negotiations between different nations it would in the long run be possible to separate technical from political questions and thus increase the chances of agreement see Haas, especially pp. 14–19.

⁵² For instance, Maheu is convinced that the political basis for support of UNESCO lies in its ability to meet the needs of developing nations. Any addition to the resources available would be useful in this direction. Even if a tiny proportion of the resources released from die armament sector were to be placed at the disposal of the UN system, it would represent a substantial augmentation of resources of the specialized agencies for carrying out the task of promoting development in the new nations.

⁵³ Professor Julian Hochfeld who, until his recent demise, was Deputy Director of the Department of Social Science and a noted Polish sociologist in his own right, was aware of the lacunae in transforming knowledge into policy with long-range perspectives in mind. In 1966 he wrote a long report on the social science aspects of the work of UNESCO at the request of the Director-General.

⁵⁴ Tendencies in this direction are already discernible in the new phraseology of recent draft programs submitted to the Executive Board and the General Conference, especially in the sections relating to social science and communications. Programs are formulated in such a way as to indicate an awareness of the gap in standards which would have to be bridged in order to enable the “have-not” nations to reach the “takeoff” stage as quickly as possible; programs are no longer presented only in their specific scope but in a manner which makes clear the relationship between the specific and the general. For example, see UNESCO Document 14C/5, Part II, Chapters 3 and 4.

⁵⁵ Maheu, , in Dialogue 1965, pp. 194–203Google Scholar. It should perhaps be pointed out here that during the first half of his tenure Maheu let the social science program languish; this might have been due to his assessment that social science programs do not tend to elicit practical support from member states. During the last year, however, Maheu has begun to accord a greater priority to social science in his own thinking as well as in his communications to member states and within the Secretariat. In 1966 the appointment of a new director of the social sciences division was given special attention by the Director-General. Several names were considered and the choice ultimately fell on a distinguished American social scientist.

⁵⁶ The perceptions of problems of development and priorities among the multiplicity of needs of developing areas vary from one country to another. The developing areas might tend to perceive their needs and problems in a way different from that adopted by the more developed countries which provide the bulk of financial resources for the operation of the program of UNESCO. In the event, the view of the giver prevails over that of the one who takes. It is not suggested here that this is always the case, but it is often enough true to form the basis of a generalization.

⁵⁷ A high official of UNESCO interviewed by the author said that Latin American and Asian countries are becoming increasingly restive about the fact that in its pursuit of tangible goals UNESCO seems to have lost its overt commitment to peace.

⁵⁸ The last three sessions of the General Conference reflect to an increasing degree the sense of dissatisfaction with UNESCO among the less developed nations of Latin America and Asia noted here. The source of this increased dissatisfaction lies not only in the reduction of funds available (since the emergence of African countries more money and skills have been diverted to them) but also in the apparent inability of UNESCO to relate its technical achievements to the goal of “peace.”

⁵⁹ The word “political” is used here as an adjective of “policy” rather than of “politics.”