Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-m6dg7 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-05T12:07:52.924Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Sphere of flying: the politics of international aviation

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  22 May 2009

Christer Jönsson
Affiliation:
Associate Professor of Political Science at the University of Lund, Sweden.
Get access

Abstract

International civil aviation appears to be a pertinent yet largely overlooked issuearea to study in the light of recent discussions about the changing international system. In this article the evolution of the international aviation system from its inception early in this century is analyzed in terms of regime changes. Three different regime periods are delineated, and possible explanations of the observed regime changes are discussed. On the face of it, the development of international aviation seems to conform with the overall global trend toward complex interdependence. Yet it also raises a number of questions concerning interdependence that might be addressed in the study of other issue-areas. These concern the links between politico-economic issue-areas and military security, the degree of harmony or conflict associated with interdependence, and the role of states generally—and the United States in particular—under conditions of complex interdependence.

Type
Articles
Copyright
Copyright © The IO Foundation 1981

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 Lampert, D. E., Falkowski, L. C., and Mansbach, R. W., “Is There an International System?International Studies Quarterly 22 (03 1978): 143–66CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

2 Burton, J. W., World Society (London: Cambridge University Press, 1972), p. 43CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

3 Keohane, R. O. and Nye, J. S., Power and Interdependence (Boston: Little, Brown, 1977)Google Scholar.

4 Lowenfeld, A. F., “A New Takeoff for International Air Transport,” Foreign Affairs 54 (10 1975)CrossRefGoogle Scholar: 36.

5 Cooper, J. C., The Right to Fly (New York: Henry Holt and Co., 1947), p. 17Google Scholar.

6 Corbett, D., Politics and the Airlines (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1965), p. 26Google Scholar.

7 Cooper, , The Right to Fly, p. 152Google Scholar.

8 Cf. Lissitzyn, O. J., International Air Transport and National Policy (New York: Council on Foreign Relations, 1942), pp. 45Google Scholar.

9 Dargan, M., “The North Atlantic” (Dargan Report), IATA, 03 1976, p. 1Google Scholar; cf. address by IATA Director General Knut Hammarskjold to the European Civil Aviation Conference, Strasbourg, 21 June 1976.

10 Hammarskjöld, K., “International Air Transport, Tariffs and Trade,” address to the Royal Institute of International Affairs, London, 25 04 1978Google Scholar; and Comments” at symposium on the Changing Environment of International Air Commerce, Georgetown University, Washington, D.C., 4 05 1978Google Scholar.

11 Keohane, and Nye, , Power and Interdependence, p. 19Google Scholar; Haas, Ernst B., “Why Collaborate? Issue-Linkage and International Regimes,” World Politics 32 (04 1980): 358CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

12 Young, Oran R., “International Regimes: Problems of Concept Formation,” World Politics 32 (04 1980): 332CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

13 Ibid., pp. 333–38. Young adds implementation (compliance mechanisms) as a third component of a regime, but concludes that “underinvestment in compliance mechanisms will be characteristic of international regimes” (p. 340).

14 Goedhuis, D., “Civil Aviation after the War,” American Journal of International Law 36 (1942): 610CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

15 Cf. Cooper, , The Right to Fly, pp. 1820Google Scholar; Goedhuis, , “Civil Aviation after the War,” pp. 598–99Google Scholar; Johnson, B., Suveräniteten i havet och luftrummet (Stockholm: Nordstedts, 1972), pp. 220–23Google Scholar.

16 Cooper, , The Right to Fly, pp. 2021Google Scholar; Johnson, , Suveräniteten, pp. 224–25Google Scholar.

17 Cooper, , The Right to Fly, p. 22Google Scholar.

18 Ibid., pp. 27–35; Johnson, , Suveräniteten, pp. 233–34Google Scholar; Lissitzyn, , International Air Transport, pp. 366–73Google Scholar.

19 For similar yet not identical classifications of government interest in aviation, see Lissitzyn, , International Air Transport, pp. 3893Google Scholar; Wheatcroft, , Air Transport Policy (London: Michael Joseph, 1964), pp. 4657Google Scholar; Thornton, R. L., “Governments and Airlines,” in Transnational Relations and World Politics, Keohane, R. O. and Nye, J. S., eds. (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1971), pp. 192–97Google Scholar.

20 Thornton, , “Governments and Airlines,” p. 191Google Scholar.

21 Cooper, , The Right to Fly, p. 145Google Scholar.

22 Cf. ibid., p. 145; Corbett, , Politics and the Airlines, pp. 2930Google Scholar; Goedhuis, , “Civil Aviation after the War,” p. 603Google Scholar; Lissitzyn, , International Air Transport, pp. 397–98Google Scholar.

23 Cf. Cooper, , The Right to Fly, pp. 146–48Google Scholar; Lissitzyn, , International Air Transport, pp. 400402Google Scholar.

24 Lowenfeld, , “A New Takeoff,” p. 37Google Scholar; Thornton, R. L., International Airlines and Politics (Ann Arbor, Mich.: Michigan International Business Studies no. 13, 1970), pp. 2022Google Scholar.

25 Cf. Cooper, , The Right to Fly, pp. 170–72Google Scholar; Johnson, , Suveräniteten, pp. 256–59Google Scholar; Thornton, , International Airlines and Politics, pp. 2729Google Scholar.

26 Lipman, G. H., “An Analysis of the North Atlantic 1964–1974: Regulatory/Governmental Considerations,” paper appended to the Dargan Report, IATA, 03 1976, p. 2Google Scholar.

27 Lowenfeld, , “A New Takeoff,” p. 37Google Scholar.

28 In the absence of any effective multilateral arrangement, the fundamental third and fourth freedoms—the right of A'to discharge traffic from A to B, and the right of A' to carry traffic from B back to A—remain subjects of bilateral bargaining. The same is true of the much-disputed fifth and sixth freedoms. The fifth states the right of A' to collect traffic in B and fly it on to C; the sixth states the right of A' to collect traffic in country X that is bound for C and to route it through A. Cf. Cooper, , The Right to Fly, pp. 174–77Google Scholar; Johnson, , Suveräniteten, pp. 258–59Google Scholar; U.S. International A viation Policy at the Crossroads: A Study of Alternative Policies and Their Consequences, report prepared for Dept. of State, DOT, President's Council on International Economic Policy, by Harbridge House, Inc., et al. (1975)Google Scholar. The so-called sixth freedom was not discussed at Chicago but has since slowly become accepted.

29 Wheatcroft, , Air Transport Policy, p. 70Google Scholar.

30 IATA, an association of international airlines, was founded at Havana in 1945.

31 For summaries of the Bermuda agreement, see, e.g., Cooper, , The Right to Fly, pp. 177–78Google Scholar; Lowenfeld, , “A New Takeoff,” pp. 3738Google Scholar; Thornton, , International Airlines and Politics, pp. 3437Google Scholar; Lipman, , “An Analysis of the North Atlantic,” pp. 46Google Scholar; Wheatcroft, , Air Transport Policy, pp. 7071Google Scholar.

32 See, e.g., Bracker, J. W. S., IATA and What It Does (Leyden: A. W. Sijthoff, 1977)Google Scholar.

33 World Air Transport Statistics, 1977 (Geneva: IATA, 1978), Addendum, p. 6Google Scholar.

34 Cf., e.g., Thayer, F. C. Jr, Air Transport Policy and National Security (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1965), pp. 90112Google Scholar.

35 Cf. ibid., p. 267.

36 Cf. Wheatcroft, , Air Transport Policy, pp. 3334Google Scholar.

37 Lowenfeld, , “A New Takeoff,” p. 40Google Scholar.

38 Thornton, , International Airlines and Politics, p. 81Google Scholar.

39 Cf. Brooks, P. W., The Modern Airliner (London: Putman, 1961), p. 141Google Scholar.

40 Hammarskjöld, K., “International Air Transport on the Move,” address to International Aviation Club of Japan, 9 03 1979Google Scholar.

41 Lowenfeld, , “A New Takeoff,” p. 41Google Scholar.

42 Hammarskjöld, K., “The New Economic Environment and Its Effects on Air Transport,” address to International World Airports Conference, Brighton, 5 05 1976CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

43 Cf., e.g., Lipman, , “An Analysis of the North Atlantic,” pp. 78, 10–12Google Scholar.

44 Hammarskjöld, K., “Air Cargo Prospects,” address to Freight Seminar, Gothenburg, 17 03 1977Google Scholar.

45 See, e.g., Dargan Report, p. 22.

46 Hammarskjöld, K., address to IATA Composite Traffic Conference Meeting, Cannes, 27 10 1975Google Scholar; address at UFTAA congress, Naples, 11 November 1975.

47 Documentation of the “Show Cause” proceedings is found in CAB Docket 32851.

48 Good summaries of the pro and con arguments in the “deregulation” controversy are found in Cohen, M. S., “Six Myths About U.S. International Air Transportation Policy,” paper presented at ITA Think Tank on International Air Transportation, Paris, 8 06 1979Google Scholar; and Stainton, R., “Deregulation: Quo Vadis? Where Indeed!” speech at International Aviation Conference, New York, 25 05 1979Google Scholar. Mr. Cohen is CAB Chairman, and Mr. Stainton Deputy Chairman and Chief Executive of British Airways.

49 Cf. e.g., Stainton, “Deregulation: Quo Vadis”; Thomson, A., “Experience on Transatlantic Routes with Competitive Fares and Liberal Charter Rules,” paper presented at U.S. Department of State Symposium on International Aviation Policy, Kingston, Jamaica, 30 01–2 February 1979Google Scholar; Cruz, R. A. Jr, “American Aero-Imperialism: Issues and Alternatives,” address to International Aviation Club, Washington, D.C., 19 06 1979Google Scholar. Mr. Thomson is Chairman of British Caledonian Airways, and Mr. Cruz Chairman and President of Philippine Airlines.

50 Mathu, E. W., “Implications of Greater or Lesser Competition in International Civil Aviation on the Economic Development of LDCs,” paper presented at U.S. Department of State Symposium on International Aviation Policy, Kingston, Jamaica, 30 01–2 February 1979, p. 2Google Scholar.

51 Keohane, and Nye, , Power and Interdependence, p. 20Google Scholar.

52 K. Hammarskjöld, “International Air Transport on the Move.

53 Cf. Lowenfeld, , “A New Takeoff,” p. 50Google Scholar.

54 Keohane, and Nye, , Power and Interdependence, pp. 2329Google Scholar.

55 Cf. Kaldor, M., “Economic Aspects of Arms Supply Policies to the Middle East,” in Great Power Intervention in the Middle East, Leitenberg, M. and Sheffer, G., eds. (New York: Pergamon, 1979), pp. 206–30Google Scholar; Hoagland, J. H., “The U.S. and European Aerospace Industries and Military Exports to the Less Developed Countries,” in Arms Transfers to the Third World: The Military Build up in Less Industrial Countries, Ra'nan, U., Pfaltzgraff, R. L. Jr, and Kemp, G., eds. (Boulder, Co.: Westview, 1978), pp. 213–27Google Scholar.

56 Reynolds, P. A. and McKinlay, R. D., “The Concept of Interdependence: Its Uses and Misuses,” inPower, Capabilities, Interdependence, Goldmann, K. and Sjostedt, G., eds. (London and Beverly Hills: Sage, 1979), p. 160Google Scholar.

57 Keohane, R. O. and Nye, J. S., “International Interdependence and Integration,” in Handbook of Political Science, vol. 8, Greenstein, F. I. and Polsby, N. W., eds. (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1975), p. 367Google Scholar.

58 Keohane, and Nye, , Power and Interdependence, p. 8Google Scholar.

59 Morse, E. L., Modernization and the Transformation of International Relations (New York: The Free Press, 1976), pp. 149–50Google Scholar.

60 Ibid., pp. 19–20.

61 Cf. the early works of John Hertz and his later disavowal of his own original thesis, in Hertz, J. H., The Nation-State and the Crisis of World Politics (New York: David McKay, 1976)Google Scholar.

62 Morse, , Modernization, p. 179Google Scholar.

63 Cf. ibid., pp. 80–84; Scott, A. W., “The Logic of International Interaction,” International Studies Quarterly 21 (09 1977): 429–60CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

64 Cf., e.g., Haas, “Why Collaborate?”

65 Keohane, and Nye, , Power and Interdependence, pp. 3860Google Scholar.

66 Cf. Brooks, , The Modern Airliner, pp. 6784Google Scholar.

67 Cf. Thornton, , International Airlines and Politics, pp. 4445, 162–64Google Scholar.

68 Wheatcroft, , Air Transport Policy, p. 108Google Scholar.

69 Lissitzyn, , International Air Transport, p. 3Google Scholar.

70 Cf. Brooks, The Modern Airliner, p. 141Google Scholar.

71 Cooper, , The Right lo Fly, pp. 3233Google Scholar.

72 Ibid., p. 129.

73 It could be argued that “of the three elements—land, sea, and air—the last is the least national and nationalizable” (Goedhuis, , “Civil Aviation after the War,” p. 613)Google Scholar. Yet the principle of national sovereignty remains more salient in international aviation than in international shipping where the right of “innocent passage” in territorial waters is granted in international law and traffic rights between ports do not have to be negotiated bilaterally between governments.

74 Cf. Thornton, , International Airlines and Politics, p. 9Google Scholar.

75 World Air Transport Statistics, 1977.

76 For useful discussions of “issue-specific” or “policy-contingency” frameworks for the analysis of international power, see O. Knudsen, “Capabilities, Issue-Areas, and Inter-State Power,” in Power, Capabilities, Interdependence, Goldmann and Sjöstedt, eds.; and Baldwin, D. A., “Power Analysis and World Politics: New Trends versus Old Tendencies,” World Politics 31 (01 1979): 161–94CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

77 Since most airlines are of national identity and traffic rights are negotiated bilaterally between states, it seems reasonable to conceive of power in the aviation issue-area primarily in terms of national power.

78 Cf. Thornton, , International Airlines and Politics, pp. 4960Google Scholar; Wassenbergh, H. A., Aspects of Air Law and Civil Air Policy in the Seventies (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1970), p. 20CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

79 Thornton, , International Airlines and Politics, pp. 6171Google Scholar.

80 The Impact of Air Power, Emme, E. M., ed. (Princeton, N.J.: Van Nostrand, 1959), p. 4Google Scholar.

81 Ibid., p. 9.

82 Hall, M. and Peck, W., “Wings for the Trojan Horse,” Foreign Affairs 19 (01 1941), pp. 347–69CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

83 Kilmarx, R. A., A History of Soviet Air Power (London: Faber and Faber, 1962), p. 99Google Scholar.

84 Cooper, , The Right to Fly, pp. 171–72Google Scholar; Thayer, , Air Transport Policy, pp. 7576Google Scholar.

85 Thornton, , International Airlines and Politics, p. 66Google Scholar.

86 Cf., e.g., ibid., pp. 146–48.

87 Jet engines, for instance, owed their origin to work done in Britain. As a result of a series of accidents with early British jet transports, however, further development was delayed and Britain, as a consequence, lost its lead to U.S. manufacturers who by starting later were able to take ad-vantage of design features explored in the course of operating jet bombers. Cf. Brooks, , The Modern Airliner, pp. 112–31Google Scholar; wheatcroft, , Air Transport Policy, pp. 9294Google Scholar.

88 Cf. Affärsvärlden, no. 3 (1980), p. 60Google Scholar; K. Hammarskjöld, Address to the International Chamber of Commerce, Orlando, Florida, 4 October 1978.

89 In 1950 PanAm and TWA together carried 63% of the traffic on the North Atlantic, but by 1962 their combined share had shrunk to 36% (Corbett, , Politics and the Airlines, p. 298)Google Scholar.

90 Cf. Thayer, , Air Transport Policy, pp. 8687, 281–82Google Scholar; Thornton, , International Airlines and Politics, p. 104Google Scholar.

91 The tactics of geographic leverage were graphically spelled out in an internal CAB memorandum of 26 February 1979, written by Michael Levine, which became publicly known through a conscious or accidental leak.

92 Mathu, E. W., “Implications of Greater or Lesser Competition,” pp. 34Google Scholar.

93 Cf. Wassenbergh, , Aspects of Air Law, pp. 716Google Scholar.

94 Gilpin, R., “The Politics of Transnational Economic Relations,” in Transnational Relations and World Politics, Keohane, and Nye, , eds., p. 54Google Scholar.

95 Kihl, Y. W., Conflict Issues and International Civil Aviation Decisions: Three Cases (Denver, Co.: Monograph Series in World Affairs, University of Denver, 1971)Google Scholar stresses the forum-type role of ICAO.

96 Lowenfeld, , “A New Takeoff,” p. 39Google Scholar.

97 Wheatcroft, , Air Transport Policy, pp. 8283Google Scholar.

98 Cf. Rosecrance, R. et al. , “Whither Interdependence?International Organization 31 (Summer 1977): 425–71CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

99 Keohane, and Nye, , “International Interdependence and Integration,” p. 396Google Scholar.