Hostname: page-component-745bb68f8f-s22k5 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-01-09T04:27:53.577Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

An Eye for an Eye: Public Support for War Against Evildoers

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  09 August 2006

Peter Liberman
Peter Liberman
Affiliation:
Queens College and the Graduate Center, City University of New York, [email protected]
Get access

Abstract

Retributiveness and humanitarianism, predispositions that shape individuals' moral judgment and criminal punishment attitudes, should also influence their positions on war against evil-seeming states. Retributiveness should heighten support for punitive uses of military force, satisfaction from punitive wars, and threats perceived from transgressor states, while humanitarianism should have the opposite effects. Using death penalty support as a proxy measure for these values, public opinion about the 1991 and 2003 Persian Gulf wars provides evidence for a moral-punitiveness effect. Death penalty supporters were significantly more hawkish than death penalty opponents in both cases, controlling for ideology, utilitarian logic, and other potential confounders. These findings explain why foreign villains and good-versus-evil framing heighten public support for war.Earlier versions of this article were delivered at the 2003 and 2005 annual meetings of the American Political Science Association. I am grateful to Kurt Gaubatz, Daniel Geller, Paul Goren, Jon Hurwitz, Keena Lipsitz, Shoon Murray, Felicia Pratto, and International Organization's reviewers for comments on earlier drafts. Craig Enders, Keith Markus, and Cornell University Peace Studies Seminar participants gave me helpful suggestions, and Linda Skitka shared useful unpublished findings. This study benefited from a PSC-CUNY grant from the City University of New York, and Ahuva Spitz's able research assistance.

Type
Research Article
Information
International Organization , Volume 60 , Issue 3 , July 2006 , pp. 687 - 722
Copyright
© 2006 The IO Foundation and Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

ABC News/Washington Post. 2005. ABC News/Washington Post Poll 2005-985, June 23–26, 2005. Storrs: Roper Center for Public Opinion Research/University of Connecticut.
Alexander, Michele G., Shana Levin, and P. J. Henry. 2005. Image Theory, Social Identity, and Social Dominance: Structural Characteristics and Individual Motives Underlying International Images. Political Psychology 26 (1):27–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Altemeyer, Bob. 1996. The Authoritarian Specter. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
Altemeyer, Bob. 1998. The Other “Authoritarian Personality.” Advances in Experimental Social Psychology 30:47–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baldus, D. C., and G. G. Woodworth. 1998. Race Discrimination and the Death Penalty: An Empirical Overview. In America's Experiment with Capital Punishment: Reflections on the Past, Present and Future of the Ultimate Penal Sanction, edited by J. R. Acker, R. M. Bohm, and C. S. Lanier, 385–415. Durham, N.C.: Carolina Academic Press.
Batson, C. Daniel. 1991. The Altruism Question: Toward a Social Psychological Answer. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum.
Batson, C. Daniel, Cynthia L. Turk, Laura L. Shaw, and Tricia R. Klein. 1995. Information Function of Empathic Emotion: Learning That We Value the Other's Welfare. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 68 (2):300–13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baumer, Eric P., Steven F. Messner, and Richard Rosenfeld. 2003. Explaining Spatial Variation in Support for Capital Punishment: A Multilevel Analysis. American Journal of Sociology 108 (4):844–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bohm, R. M., L. J. Clark, and A. F. Aveni. 1991. Knowledge and Death-Penalty Opinion: A Test of the Marshall Hypotheses. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 28 (3):360–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Borg, Marian J. 1997. The Southern Subculture of Punitiveness? Regional Variation in Support for Capital Punishment. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 34 (1):25–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brewer, Paul R., Kimberly Gross, Sean Aday, and Lars Willnat. 2004. International Trust and Public Opinion About World Affairs. American Journal of Political Science 48 (1):93–109.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burk, James. 1999. Public Support for Peacekeeping in Lebanon and Somalia: Assessing the Casualties Hypothesis. Political Science Quarterly 114 (1):53–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bush, George W. 2002. Remarks by the President on Iraq, 7 October. Available from http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/10/20021007-8.html. Accessed 20 April 2006.
Bush, George W. 2003. State of the Union Address, 28 January. Available from 〈http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2003/01/20030128-19.html〉. Accessed 15 February 2006.
Carlsmith, Kevin M., John M. Darley, and Paul H. Robinson. 2002. Why Do We Punish? Deterrence and Just Deserts as Motives for Punishment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 83 (2):284–99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Christensen, Thomas J. 1996. Useful Adversaries: Grand Strategy, Domestic Mobilization, and Sino-American Conflict, 1947–1958. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
Darley, John M., Kevin M. Carlsmith, and Paul H. Robinson. 2000. Incapacitation and Just Deserts as Motives for Punishment. Law and Human Behavior 24 (6):659–83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davis, Mark H. 2005. Empathy: Negotiating the Border Between Self and Other. In The Social Life of Emotions, edited by Larissa Z. Tiedens and Colin Wayne Leach, 19–42. New York: Cambridge University Press.
de Quervain, Dominique J.-F., Urs Fischbacher, Valerie Treyer, Melanie Schellhammer, Ulrich Schnyder, Alfred Buck, and Ernst Fehr. 2004. The Neural Basis of Altruistic Punishment. Science 305 (5688):1254–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DeSteno, D., N. Dasgupta, M. Y. Bartlett, and A. Cajdric. 2004. Prejudice from Thin Air: The Effect of Emotion on Automatic Intergroup Attitudes. Psychological Science 15 (5):319–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dorman, William A., and Steven Livingston. 1994. News and Historical Content: The Establishing Phase of the Persian Gulf Policy Debate. In Taken by Storm: The Media, Public Opinion, and U.S. Foreign Policy in the Gulf War, edited by W. Lance Bennett and David L. Paletz, 63–81. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Doty, Richard M., David G. Winter, Bill E. Peterson, and Markus Kemmelmeier. 1997. Authoritarianism and American Students' Attitudes About the Gulf War, 1990–1996. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 23 (11):1133–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dower, John. 1986. War Without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War. New York: Pantheon.
Eichenberg, Richard C. 2005. Victory Has Many Friends: U.S. Public Opinion and the Use of Military Force, 1981–2005. International Security 30 (1):140–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ellison, Christopher G. 1991. An Eye for an Eye? A Note on the Southern Subculture of Violence Thesis. Social Forces 69 (4):1223–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ellison, Christopher G. 1993. Conservative Protestantism and Support for Corporal Punishment. American Sociological Review 58 (1):131–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ellsworth, P. C., and S. R. Gross. 1994. Hardening of the Attitudes: Americans' Views on the Death-Penalty. Journal of Social Issues 50 (2):19–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ellsworth, P. C., and L. Ross. 1983. Public Opinion and Capital Punishment: A Close Examination of the Views of Abolitionists and Retentionists. Crime and Delinquency 29 (1):116–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Entman, Robert M. 2004. Projections of Power: Framing News, Public Opinion, and U.S. Foreign Policy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Feldman, Stanley. 1988. Structure and Consistency in Public Opinion: The Role of Core Beliefs and Values. American Journal of Political Science 32 (2):416–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Feldman, Stanley, and Marco R. Steenbergen. 2001. Social Welfare Attitudes and the Humanitarian Sensibility. In Citizens and Politics: Perspectives from Political Psychology, edited by James H. Kuklinski, 366–400. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Foyle, Douglas. 1999. Counting the Public in: Presidents, Public Opinion, and Foreign Policy. New York: Columbia.
Foyle, Douglas. 2004. Leading the Public to War? The Influence of American Public Opinion on the Bush Administration's Decision to Go to War in Iraq. International Journal of Public Opinion Research 16 (3):269–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Freedman, Lawrence, and Efraim Karsh. 1993. The Gulf Conflict, 1990–1991: Diplomacy and War in the New World Order. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
Frum, David. 2003. The Right Man: The Surprise Presidency of George W. Bush. New York: Random House.
Funke, Friedrich. 2005. The Dimensionality of Right-Wing Authoritarianism: Lessons from the Dilemma Between Theory and Measurement. Political Psychology 26 (2):195–218.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gallup News Service. 1991. Gallup News Service Survey #1991-222002, June 13–16, 1991. Storrs: Roper Center for Public Opinion Research/University of Connecticut.
Gallup News Service. 2003. Gallup News Service Poll #2003-31, May 19–21, 2003. Storrs: Roper Center for Public Opinion Research/University of Connecticut.
Garvey, Stephen P. 2000. The Emotional Economy of Capital Sentencing. New York University Law Review 75 (1):26–73.Google Scholar
Gelpi, Christopher. 2002. The Power of Legitimacy: Assessing the Role of Norms in Crisis Bargaining. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
Gelpi, Christopher, Peter D. Feaver, and Jason Reifler. 2005/2006. Casualty Sensitivity and the War in Iraq. International Security 30 (3):7–46.Google Scholar
Gershkoff, Amy, and Shana Kushner. 2005. Shaping Public Opinion: The 9/11-Iraq Connection in the Bush Administration's Rhetoric. Perspectives on Politics 3 (3):525–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goldberg, J. H., J. S. Lerner, and Philip E. Tetlock. 1999. Rage and Reason: The Psychology of the Intuitive Prosecutor. European Journal of Social Psychology 29 (5–6):781–95.Google Scholar
Gordijn, Ernestine H., Daniel Wigboldus, and Vincent Yzerbyt. 2001. Emotional Consequences of Categorizing Victims of Negative Outgroup Behavior as Ingroup or Outgroup. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations 4 (4):317–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goren, Paul. 2004. Political Sophistication and Policy Reasoning: A Reconsideration. American Journal of Political Science 48 (3):462–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Graham, Sandra, Bernard Weiner, and Gail Sahar Zucker. 1997. An Attributional Analysis of Punishment Goals and Public Reactions to O. J. Simpson. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 23 (4):331–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gross, Samuel R., and Phoebe C. Ellsworth. 2003. Second Thoughts: Americans' Views on the Death Penalty at the Turn of the Century. In Capital Punishment and the American Future, edited by Stephen P. Garvey, 7–57. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press.
Haidt, Jonathan. 2001. The Emotional Dog and Its Rational Tail: A Social Intuitionist Approach to Moral Judgment. Psychological Review 108 (4):814–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harris Interactive. 2003. Harris Interactive/CNN/Time Magazine Poll 2003–01, January 15–16, 2003. Storrs: Roper Center for Public Opinion Research/University of Connecticut.
Herrmann, Richard K., and Vaughn P. Shannon. 2001. Defending International Norms: The Role of Obligation, Material Interest, and Perception in Decision Making. International Organization 55 (3):621–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Herrmann, Richard K., Philip E. Tetlock, and Penny S. Visser. 1999. Mass Public Decisions to Go to War: A Cognitive-Interactionist Framework. American Political Science Review 93 (3):553–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hochschild, Jennifer L. 2001. Where You Stand Depends on What You See: Connections Among Values, Perceptions of Fact, and Political Prescriptions. In Citizens and Politics: Perspectives from Political Psychology, edited by James H. Kuklinski, 313–40. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Holsti, Ole R. 2004. Public Opinion and American Foreign Policy. Rev. ed. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Honaker, James, Anne Joseph, Gary King, Kenneth Scheve, and Naunihal Singh. 2001. Amelia: A Program for Missing Data, Version 2.1. Cambridge: Mass.: Harvard University.
Hurwitz, Jon, and Mark Peffley. 1987. How Are Foreign Policy Attitudes Structured? A Hierarchical Model. American Political Science Review 81 (4):1099–1120.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hurwitz, Jon, and Mark Peffley. 1990. Public Images of the Soviet Union: The Impact on Foreign Policy Attitudes. Journal of Politics 52 (1):3–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hurwitz, Jon, and Mark Peffley. 1992. Traditional Versus Social Values as Antecedents of Racial Stereotyping and Policy Conservatism. Political Behavior 14 (4):395–421.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jentleson, Bruce. 1992. The Pretty Prudent Public: Post Post-Vietnam American Opinion on the Use of Force. International Studies Quarterly 36 (1):49–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jentleson, Bruce, and Rebecca L. Britton. 1998. Still Pretty Prudent: Post–Cold War American Public Opinion on the Use of Military Force. Journal of Conflict Resolution 42 (4):395–417.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaufmann, Chaim. 2004. Threat Inflation and the Failure of the Marketplace of Ideas: The Selling of the Iraq War. International Security 29 (1):5–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keltner, D., P. C. Ellsworth, and K. Edwards. 1993. Beyond Simple Pessimism: Effects of Sadness and Anger on Social Perception. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 64 (5):740–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kinder, Donald R. 2003. Belief Systems after Converse. In Electoral Democracy, edited by Michael B. MacKuen and George Rabinowitz, 13–47. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
King, Gary, James Honaker, Anne Joseph, and Kenneth Scheve. 2001. Analyzing Incomplete Political Science Data: An Alternative Algorithm for Multiple Imputation. American Political Science Review 95 (1):46–69.Google Scholar
Kohut, Andrew. 2005. Public Attentiveness to News Stories: 1986–2004 (News Interest Index). Pew Research Center for the People and the Press. Available at 〈http://people-press.org/nii〉. Accessed 15 March 2006.
Kull, Steven, Clay Ramsay, and Evan Lewis. 2003–04. Misperceptions, the Media, and the Iraq War. Political Science Quarterly 118 (4):569–98.Google Scholar
Kunda, Ziva. 1990. The Case for Motivated Reasoning. Psychological Bulletin 108 (3):480–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Larson, Eric. 1996. Casualties and Consensus: The Historical Role of Casualties in Domestic Support for U.S. Military Operations. Santa Monica, Calif.: Rand.
Lerner, Jennifer S., J. H. Goldberg, and Philip E. Tetlock. 1998. Sober Second Thought: The Effects of Accountability, Anger, and Authoritarianism on Attributions of Responsibility. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 24 (6):563–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lerner, Jennifer S., Roxana M. Gonzalez, Deborah A. Small, and Baruch Fischhoff. 2003. Effects of Fear and Anger on Perceived Risks of Terrorism: A National Field Experiment. Psychological Science 14 (2):144–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leung, Kwok, and Michael W. Morris. 2000. Justice Through the Lens of Culture and Ethnicity. In Handbook of Justice Research in Law, edited by Joseph Sanders and V. Lee Hamilton, 343–78. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum.
Liberman, Peter. forthcoming. Moral Punitiveness and Elite Support for the 1991 Persian Gulf War. Journal of Conflict Resolution.
Long, J. Scott. 1997. Regression Models for Categorical and Limited Dependent Variables. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications.
MacArthur, John R. 1992. Second Front: Censorship and Propaganda in the Gulf War. New York: Hill & Wang.
Mackie, Diane M., Lisa A. Silver, and Eliot R. Smith. 2005. Intergroup Emotions: Emotion as an Intergroup Phenomenon. In The Social Life of Emotions, edited by Larissa Z. Tiedens and Colin Wayne Leach, 227–45. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Manheim, Jarol B. 1994. Strategic Public Diplomacy: Managing Kuwait's Image During the Gulf Conflict. In Taken by Storm: The Media, Public Opinion, and U.S. Foreign Policy in the Gulf War, edited by W. Lance Bennett and David L. Paletz, 131–48. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
McFarland, Sam G. 2005. On the Eve of War: Authoritarianism, Social Dominance, and American Students' Attitudes Toward Attacking Iraq. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 31 (3):360–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mearsheimer, John J. 2001. Tragedy of Great Power Politics. New York: W.W. Norton.
Miller, Warren E., Donald R. Kinder, and Steven J. Rosenstone. 1992. American National Election Panel Study, 1990–92. Conducted by University of Michigan, Center for Political Studies. 2d ICPSR ed. Ann Arbor: Inter-University Consortium for Political and Social Research. 〈www.icpsr.umich.edu〉.
Morgenthau, Hans. 1973. Politics Among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace. 5th ed. New York: Knopf.
Mueller, John E. 1994. Policy and Opinion in the Gulf War. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Mueller, John E. 2004–05. What Was the Cold War About? Evidence from Its Ending. Political Science Quarterly 119 (4):609–31.Google Scholar
Mullen, Elizabeth, and Linda J. Skitka. 2006. Exploring the Psychological Underpinnings of the Moral Mandate Effect: Motivated Reasoning, Group Differentiation, or Anger? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 90 (4):629–43.Google Scholar
Nadler, Janice, and Mary R. Rose. 2003. Victim Impact Testimony and the Psychology of Punishment. Cornell Law Review 88 (2):429–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nisbett, Richard E., and Dov Cohen. 1996. Culture of Honor: The Psychology of Violence in the South. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press.
Nossal, Kim Richard. 1989. International Sanctions as International Punishment. International Organization 43 (2):301–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Offer, Avner. 1995. Going to War in 1914: A Matter of Honor? Politics & Society 23 (2):213–41.Google Scholar
Ogloff, J. R. P., and Neil Vidmar. 1994. The Impact of Pretrial Publicity on Jurors: A Study to Compare the Relative Effects of Television and Print Media in a Child Sex Abuse Case. Law and Human Behavior 18 (5):507–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
O'Neill, Barry. 1999. Honor, Symbols, and War. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Page, Benjamin I., and Robert Y. Shapiro. 1992. The Rational Public: Fifty Years of Trends in Americans' Policy Preferences. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Paris, Roland. 2002. Kosovo and the Metaphor War. Political Science Quarterly 117 (3):423–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pratto, Felicia, Jim Sidanius, Lisa M. Stallworth, and Bertram F. Malle. 1994. Social Dominance Orientation: A Personality Variable Predicting Social and Political Attitudes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 67 (4):741–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pratto, Felicia, Lisa M. Stallworth, and S. Conway-Lanz. 1998. Social Dominance Orientation and the Ideological Legitimization of Social Policy. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 28 (20):1853–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rohrer, Tim. 1995. The Metaphorical Logic of (Political) Rape: The New Wor(l)d Order. Metaphor and Symbolic Activity 10 (2):115–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosen, Stephen Peter. 2004. War and Human Nature. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
Rucker, Derek D., Mark Polifroni, Philip E. Tetlock, and Amanda L. Scott. 2004. On the Assignment of Punishment: The Impact of General-Societal Threat and the Moderating Role of Severity. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 30 (6):273–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sadler, Melody S., Megan Lineberger, Joshua Correll, and Bernadette Park. 2005. Emotions, Attributions, and Policy Endorsement in Response to the September 11th Terrorist Attacks. Basic and Applied Social Psychology 27 (3):249–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sande, Gerald N., George R. Goethals, Lisa Ferrari, and Leila T. Worth. 1989. Value-Guided Attributions: Maintaining the Moral Self-Image and the Diabolical Enemy-Image. Journal of Social Issues 45 (2):91–118.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schafer, John L. 1997. Analysis of Incomplete Multivariate Data. New York: Chapman & Hall/CRC.
Sidanius, Jim, and Felicia Pratto. 1999. Social Dominance: An Intergroup Theory of Social Hierarchy and Oppression. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Skitka, Linda J., Christopher W. Bauman, and Elizabeth Mullen. 2004. Political Tolerance and Coming to Psychological Closure Following the September 11, 2001, Terrorist Attacks: An Integrative Approach. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 30 (6):743–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Skitka, Linda J., Christopher W. Bauman, and Edward G. Sargis. 2005. Moral Conviction: Another Contributor to Attitude Strength or Something More? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 88 (6):895–917.Google Scholar
Small, Deborah, and George Loewenstein. 2005. The Devil You Know: The Effects of Identifiability on Punitiveness. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making 18 (5):311–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sobel, Richard. 2001. The Impact of Public Opinion on U.S. Foreign Policy Since Vietnam: Constraining the Colossus. New York: Oxford.
Soss, Joe, Laura Langbein, and Alan R. Metelko. 2003. Why Do White Americans Support the Death Penalty? Journal of Politics 65 (2):397–421.Google Scholar
Steinberg, Blema S. 1991. Shame and Humiliation in the Cuban Missile Crisis. Political Psychology 12 (4):653–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sulfaro, Valerie A. 1996. The Role of Ideology and Political Sophistication in the Structure of Foreign Policy Attitudes. American Politics Quarterly 24 (3):303–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Taber, Charles, Milton Lodge, and Jill Glather. 2001. The Motivated Construction of Political Judgments. In Citizens and Politics: Perspectives from Political Psychology, edited by James H. Kuklinski, 198–226. London: Cambridge University Press.
Tomz, Michael, Jason Wittenberg, and Gary King. 2003. Clarify: Software for Interpreting and Presenting Statistical Results, Version 2.1. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University.
Trubowitz, Peter. 1998. Defining the National Interest: Conflict and Change in American Foreign Policy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Tyler, Tom R., and Robert J. Boeckmann. 1997. Three Strikes and You Are Out, but Why? The Psychology of Public Support for Punishing Rule Breakers. Law & Society Review 31 (2):237–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tyler, Tom R., and Renee Weber. 1982. Support for the Death Penalty: Instrumental Response to Crime, or Symbolic Attitude? Law & Society Review 17 (1):21–46.Google Scholar
U.S. Department of Justice. 1994. Sourcebook of Criminal Justice Statistics, 1994. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice.
Vidmar, Neil. 1974. Retributive and Utilitarian Motives and Other Correlates of Canadian Attitudes toward the Death Penalty. Canadian Psychologist 15:337–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walzer, Michael. 1991. Just and Unjust Wars: A Moral Argument with Historical Illustrations. 2d ed. New York: Basic Books.
Welch, David A. 1993. Justice and the Genesis of War. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Western, Jon. 2005. Selling Intervention and War: The Presidency, the Media, and the American Public. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Wittkopf, Eugene R. 1990. Faces of Internationalism: Public Opinion and American Foreign Policy. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press.