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Transgovernmental challenge and response in Scandinavia and North America

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  22 May 2009

C. Robert Dickerman
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Abstract

Eighty interviews with bureaucratic and political actors in five national capitals illustrate the Keohane/Nye theoretical argument concerning the importance of transnational and, specifically, transgovernmental factors in world politics. Focusing upon the development and application of integrative techniques between countries which have no formal supemational integrative institutions, the paper reports on the practice of transgovernmental politics within the dyad of Canada and the United States, and the triad of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. Dealing both with middlelevel bureaucratic practitioners concerned with horizontal coordination of policy and administration between countries, and with bureaucratic and political actors responsible for the cohesiveness of national policies, the paper explores situations in which the demands of external and domestic harmonization are inconsistent, and sometimes mutually contradictory. The problem of maintaining “dual coherence” in domestic and external policy and administration is identified, and procedures for attempting such coordination are discussed. Of importance are modifications within the traditional institutions of inter-state communication: foreign offices and embassies. Recommendations are made on the basis of the intra-North American and intra Scandinavian experiences. It is suggested that considerable insight into managing policy and administrative areas which are neither purely domestic nor purely external may be gained by the study of bureaucratic experience only infrequently considered by students or governmental managers. Insights which may be gained from such study, it is argued, may be of great relevance in dealing with the challenge which transgovernmental horizontal harmonization now poses for national administrations.

Type
Articles
Information
International Organization , Volume 30 , Issue 2 , Spring 1976 , pp. 213 - 240
Copyright
Copyright © The IO Foundation 1976

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References

1 Keohane, Robert O. and Nye, Joseph S. Jr, “Transgovernmental Relations and International Organizations.” World Politics 27–1 (10 1974): 39–62CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

2 I interviewed functional specialists with close counterpart relationships, foreign ministry officials experienced as brokers in the policy hinterland between transnational priorities and national priorities, and political figures who served above the bureaucracies. I resisted advice to use standardized questionnaires, wishing to gain insight from each in open-ended interviewing. The result is a compilation of many practitioners' perspectives on “transgovernmental” networks which I hope will encourage others to study this phenomenon further.

3 Arne Skaug, Norwegian Ambassador to Copenhagen, interviews, April 10 and 11, 1973.

4 Tam, Henrik, De Nordiske Juristmøder 1872–1972: Nordisk Retssamvirke Gennom 100 Aar (Copenhagen: Nyt Nordisk Forlag, 1972)Google Scholar is a good history of the achievements of this cooperation.

5 John Svenningsen, Secretary-General, Nordic Trade Union Secretariat, interview, April 17, 1973. The trade union history appears in Under Samvirkets Flag (Copenhagen: n.d.).

6 The noun Norden and the adjective Nordic are used here solely to apply to the five countries of the Nordic Council: Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden. Scandinavia and Scandinavian apply to Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. Fenno-Scandinavia encompasses Scandinavia plus Finland.

7 A now-dated study in English of the Nordic Council, including many of its administrative procedures, is Anderson's, Stanley V.The Nordic Council, a Study of Scandinavian Regionalism (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1967)Google Scholar.

8 “Popular culture, the environment, research, agriculture, water, international affairs, fisheries, specific and general regional planning, consumer protection, health care, industry, electronic data, price control, meteorological data systems, air pollution, corporate law, statistics, development aid, agricultural research, general and specific scientific research, construction regulations, customs administration, business, art, religion, welding, ground water, insurance, authors, medical history, criminology, penology, state design, cost-benefit analysis, highways, mass media research, hydrology, metals research, workers education, and more.” “Kalendarium över Nordiska möten,” 1973, Nos. 3 and 4. A list of upcoming Nordic meetings is issued routinely by the Nordic Council Presidium's Secretariat in Stockholm.

9 Bengt Nilsson, Ministry of Justice, Stockholm, interview, April 19, 1973.

10 R. Lund, Chief, Legal Division, Directorate for Seamen, Oslo, interview, April 4, 1973.

11 Arne Guenning, Norwegian Ambassador to Washington, interview, January 18, 1973.

12 Interview, Stockholm, April 17, 1973.

13 These are published each year in the Nordic Council's Udredningsserie.

14 Einar Strand, Treasurer, Norwegian Confederation of Trades Unions, interview, April 4, 1973.

15 Vesten Pedersen, Secretary, Danish Agricultural Council, interview, April 9, 1973.

16 A minimal intervention was agreed upon at the level of Chief of Government. Rather than impose either border controls or domestic restrictions which would be contrary to the word and intention of the common labor market, the two Governments agreed to a slight adjustment in the bureaucratic machinery which operates within the Nordic labor market. Finnish workers, it was agreed, would be routinely informed of opportunities in Finland before being provided with information on job openings in Sweden. And Swedish employers would no longer recruit Finnish labor in public Finnish campaigns, but would instead deal only with the governmental employment services.

17 Emil Vindsetmo, Executive-Director, Secretariat, Presidium of the Nordic Council, interview, April 18, 1973.

18 Jens Svenningsen, former Ambassador to Stockholm (1945–50) and Permanent Undersecretary of the Danish Ministry of Foreign Affairs (1958–63), interview, April 10, 1973.

19 Tage Erlander, former Swedish Prime Minister (1946–69), interview, April 23, 1973.

20 Jens Otto Krag, former Danish Foreign Minister (1958, 1960–62), Prime Minister (1962–68, 1971–72) and holder of other Ministerial portfolios, interview, April 12, 1973.

21 Vindsetmo.

22 Skaug.

23 Landqvist, Aake, First Secretary, Föreningen Norden's Swedish section and editor of Norden Paa Varldsarenan (Halmstad: Hallandspostens Boktryckeri, 1968)Google Scholar. Interviews, April 19 and 26, 1973.

24 Blix, Hans, Counsellor for Legal Affairs, Royal Swedish Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and author of Statsmyndigheternas Intemationella Förbindeher (Stockholm: Norstedt, 1964)Google Scholar, one of the most detailed examinations written of the legal basis for “domestic” governmental agencies' direct contacts with agencies of other nations. Interview, April 18, 1973.

25 Skaug.

26 Krag.

27 Tim Greve, Counsellor, Royal Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, interviews, August, 1972; April 2, 1973.

28 Ibid.

29 Kjell Kolding, Counsellor for Press and Information, Norwegian Embassy, Stockholm, and former secretary to the Norwegian Foreign Minister, interview, April 16, 1973.

30 Analyses of transnational and transgovernmental aspects of the Canadian-United States relationship from many more perspectives than that of this paper appear in a special issue on “Canada and the United States: Transnational and Transgovernmental Relations,” (Fox, Annette Baker, Hero, Alfred O. Jr, and Nye, Joseph S. Jr, eds.) International Organization, 28:4 (Autumn, 1974)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

31 Skilling, Gordon, Canadian Representation Abroad, from Agency to Embassy (Toronto: Ryerson Press, 1945), especially Chapter 5Google Scholar; and Galbraith, John S., The Establishment of Canadian Diplomatic Status at Washington (Berkeley: University of California Publications in History, No. 41, 1951)Google Scholar.

32 See Heeney, A. D. P., “Diplomacy with a Difference, The International Joint Commission,” INCO Magazine, 31:3 (Falk 1966): 20–5Google Scholar; Willoughby, William R., “The Appointment and Removal of Members of the International Joint Commission,” Canadian Public Administration, 12:3 (Fall 1969): 411–26CrossRefGoogle Scholar; International Joint Commission of the United States and Canada, “Rules of Procedure and Text of Treaty,” (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office: 1968) 0–3–5–219 (174)Google Scholar; and Skilling.

33 Willoughby, , “The Canada-United States joint economic agencies of the Second World War,” Canadian Public Administration, 15:1 (Spring 1972): 59–73CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

34 Gordon Smith, Privy Council staff, interview, Ottawa, December 11, 1972.

35 Ibid.

36 The author was a participant.

37 William McKinley Johnson, Jr., Formerly Director, Office of Canadian Affairs, US Department of State, subsequently Counsellor, United States Embassy, Ottawa. Remarks at Belmont Conference, April 1972, on transnational relations and world politics sponsored by the Carnegie Endowment for the Advancement of World Peace.

38 Klaus W. Goldschlag, Director-General, Bureau of Western Hemisphere Affairs, Department of External Affairs. Interview, Ottawa, December 11, 1972.

39 Gordon Smith.

40 See House of Commons (Canada), Standing Committee on External Affairs and Defense, Minutes of Proceedings and Evidence, 1969–1970, Vol. 1: 64Google Scholar.

41 Rufus Z. Smith, formerly Counsellor, American Embassy, Ottawa, subsequently Deputy Assistant Secretary of State for Canadian Affairs, Interview, Ottawa, December 13, 1972.

42 Goldschlag.

43 Study provided to the author by Robert Baldwin, Office of Telecommunications, General Services Administration, Washington, conducted in response to author's query.

44 Unlike most national capitals, neither Ottawa nor Washington is a major international air traffic center. Has air traffic between the two capitals increased during this period? According to the reference staff of the Civil Aeronautics Board in Washington, only scattered origin-anddestination studies of travel between the two capitals have been conducted. But these studies, developed for one-year periods, show these changes over time:

45 Allison, Graham T., Essence of Decision: Explaining the Cuban Missile Crisis (Boston: Little, Brown, 1971)Google Scholar.

46 Swanson, Roger, “The United States Canadian Constellation, I: Washington, D.C.,” International Journal, 28:2 (Spring 1972) 185–218CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

47 Johnson.

48 Ian Robertson, Policy Coordinator, United States of America Division, Department of External Affairs, Ottawa. Interview, December 11, 1972.

49 Head, Ivan, “The Foreign Policy of the New Canada,” Foreign Affairs, 07 1972: 239Google Scholar.

50 LePan, Douglas, “The Outlook for the Relationship,” American Assembly, The United States and Canada (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1964), pp. 152–3Google Scholar.

51 Dallas Jones, Policy Planning Staff, Department of State, interview, January, 1973.

52 Percy Sherwood, Office of Defense Liaison, Ministry of External Affairs, Ottawa, interview, December 13, 1972.

53 Newman, Peter C., “Sharp-Toothed Beavers Bite Better than Mice,” Macleans, 85:11 (11 1972): 3Google Scholar. More imagery: MacDonald, Hugh Ian, The Canadian Hedgehog and the American Fox (Fredricton: National Conference on Canadian Goals, 1964)Google Scholar.

54 Willis C. Armstrong, Assistant Secretary of State, Bureau of Economic Affairs, Department of State. Interview, January 24, 1973.

55 Ibid.

56 Hunt Janin, Council on Environmental Quality, The White House, interview, January 24, 1973.

57 Richard Welton, Foreign Agricultural Service, US Department of Agriculture, interview, January 23, 1973.

58 Harry Shoosan, Director, Bureau of International Affairs, US Department of Interior, interview, January 23, 1973.

59 Source, who would be interviewed only if not identified, is one of Ottawa's most distinguished multi-departmental civil servants, now serving with an international organization.

60 Ibid.

61 Robert Hamarschlag, Canadian specialist, US Department of Commerce, interview, January 22, 1973.

62 Cmdr. Daniel Charter, Canadian specialist, US Coast Guard, Washington. Interview, January 24, 1973.

63 Keohane and Nye stimulated this research. The basic reference is their Transnational Relations and World Politics (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972)Google Scholar. A study prepared by Keohane and Nye for the (Murphy) Commission on the Organization of the Government for the Conduct of Foreign Policy, “Organizing for Global Environmental and Resource Interdependence,” dated 04 1975, is particularly relevantGoogle Scholar.