1. This article summarizes the arguments made in Mitchell, Ronald B., Intentional Oil Pollution at Sea: Environmental Policy and Treaty Compliance (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, forthcoming)Google Scholar.

2. The term “compliance system” comes from Young, Oran, Compliance and Public Authority: A Theory with International Applications (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979), p. 3Google Scholar.

3. See, for example, Chayes, Abram and Chayes, Antonia Handler, “On Compliance,” International Organization 47 (Spring 1993), pp. 175–205CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Young, Compliance and Public Authority; Fisher, Roger, Improving Compliance with International Law (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1981)Google Scholar; and Butler, W. E., ed., Control over Compliance with International Law (Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1991)Google Scholar.

4. See, for example, Chayes, Abram, “An Inquiry into the Workings of Arms Control Agreements,” Harvard Law Review 85 (03 1972), pp. 905–69CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Blacker, Coit D. and Duffy, Gloria, eds., International Arms Control: Issues and Agreements, 2d ed. (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1984)Google Scholar; and Chayes, Antonia Handler and Doty, Paul, Defending Deterrence: Managing the ABM Treaty into the Twenty-first Century (Washington, D.C.: Pergamon-Brassey's International Defense Publishers, 1989)Google Scholar.

5. See, for example, Duffield, John S., “International Regimes and Alliance Behavior: Explaining NATO Conventional Force Levels,” International Organization 46 (Autumn 1992), pp. 819–55CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Kapstein, Ethan, Governing the Global Economy: International Finance and the State (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1994)Google Scholar; and Grieco, Joseph M., Cooperation Among Nations: Europe, America, and Non-tariff Barriers to Trade (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1990)Google Scholar.

6. For example, see Haas, Peter, Keohane, Robert, and Levy, Marc, eds., Institutions for the Earth: Sources of Effective International Environmental Protection (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1993)Google Scholar; Sand, Peter H., Lessons Learned in Global Environmental Governance (Washington, D.C.: World Resources Institute, 1990)Google Scholar; and Haas, Peter M., “Do Regimes Matter? Epistemic Communities and Mediterranean Pollution Control,” International Organization 43 (Summer 1989), pp. 377–403CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Current projects that deal with questions of regime compliance and effectiveness (and their principal investigators) include those being conducted at, or with funding from, Dartmouth College (Oran Young and Marc Levy); the European Science Foundation (Kenneth Hanf and Arild Underdal); the Foundation for International Environmental Law and Diplomacy (James Cameron); the Fridtjof Nansen Institute (Steinar Andresen); Harvard University (Abram Chayes and Antonia Chayes); Harvard University (William Clark, Robert Keohane, and Marc Levy); the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (David Victor and Eugene Skolnikoff); and the Social Science Research Council (Edith Brown Weiss and Harold Jacobson).

7. Franck, Thomas M., The Power of Legitimacy Among Nations (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990)Google Scholar.

8. Case selection that holds these other factors constant avoids the notorious difficulties of measuring power and interests and allows us to “attribute variance in collective outcomes to the impact of institutional arrangements with some degree of confidence”; see Young, Oran, International Cooperation: Building Regimes for Natural Resources and the Environment (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1989), p. 208Google Scholar. On difficulties in measuring power, see Baldwin, David A., “Power Analysis and World Politics: New Trends Versus Old Tendencies,” World Politics 31 (01 1979), pp. 161–93CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

9. McGinnis, Michael and Ostrom, Elinor, “Design Principles for Local and Global Commons,” Workshop in Political Theory and Policy Analysis, Bloomington, Ind., 03 1992, p. 21Google Scholar. Olson's argument that small groups supply public goods more often than large groups assumes that group members benefit from providing the good, which is not true in the oil pollution case; see Olson, Mancur, The Logic of Collective Action: Public Goods and the Theory of Groups (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1965), p. 34Google Scholar.

10. See Stein, Arthur A., Why Nations Cooperate: Circumstance and Choice in International Relations (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1990)Google Scholar; and Axelrod, Robert and Keohane, Robert O., “Achieving Cooperation Under Anarchy: Strategies and Institutions,” in Oye, Kenneth, ed., Cooperation Under Anarchy (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1986)Google Scholar.

11. The quotation is from Morgenthau, Hans Joachim, Politics Among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace, 5th ed. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1978), p. 299Google Scholar. See also Waltz, Kenneth, Theory of International Politics (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., 1979), p. 204Google Scholar; and Strange, Susan, “Cave! Hie Dragones: A Critique of Regime Analysis,” in Krasner, Stephen D., ed., International Regimes (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1983), pp. 337–54 at p. 338Google Scholar. For a contrasting view, see Young, , International Cooperation, p. 62Google Scholar.

12. Morgenthau, , Politics Among Nations, p. 267Google Scholar.

13. On this distinction, see Stein, Why Nations Cooperate.

14. See, for example, Chayes, Abram and Chayes, Antonia, “Compliance Without Enforcement: State Behavior Under Regulatory Treaties,” Negotiation Journal 7 (07 1991), pp. 311–30CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Young, International Cooperation; Keohane, Robert O., “Reciprocity in International Relations,” International Organization 40 (Winter 1986), pp. 1–27CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Krasner, International Regimes.

15. Nye, Joseph S. Jr., “Nuclear Learning and U.S.–Soviet Security Regimes,” International Organization 41 (Summer 1987), pp. 371–402CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

16. See, for example, Henkin, Louis, How Nations Behave: Law and Foreign Policy (New York: Columbia University Press, 1979), p. 47Google Scholar; Young, , International Cooperation, p. 62Google Scholar; and Chayes, and Chayes, , “Compliance Without Enforcement,” p. 31Google Scholar.

17. At the extreme, if all parties violated treaty provision A and complied with treaty provision B, they could all be classified as in partial compliance, ignoring the important variance in compliance rates.

18. See Haas, Keohane, and Levy, Institutions for the Earth; Downs, George W. and Rocke, David M., Tacit Bargaining, Arms Races, and Arms Control (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1990)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Lipson, Charles, “Why Are Some International Agreements Informal?” International Organization 45 (Autumn 1991), pp. 495–538CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Chayes, and Chayes, , “On Compliance,” pp. 188–92Google Scholar.

19. The Exxon Valdez wrecked in William, Prince Sound, Alaska, on 24 03 1989Google Scholar.

20. For comparison, the Exxon Valdez spilled thirty-five thousand tons.

21. National Academy of Sciences, Petroleum in the Marine Environment (Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences, 1975)Google Scholar. See also National Academy of Sciences and National Research Council, Oil in the Sea: Inputs, Fates, and Effects (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1985)Google Scholar.

22. See, for example, National Academy of Sciences and National Research Council, Oil in the Sea; and Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Pollution (GESAMP), The State of the Marine Environment, Reports and Studies no. 39 (New York: United Nations, 1990)Google Scholar.

23. For the history of oil pollution control from the 1920s through the 1970s, see Pritchard, Sonia Zaide, Oil Pollution Control (London: Croom Helm, 1987)Google Scholar; for a history from the 1950s through the 1970s, see M'Gonigle, R. Michael and Zacher, Mark W., Pollution, Politics, and International Law: Tankers at Sea (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979)Google Scholar.

24. “International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil,” 12 May 1954, Treaties and Other International Agreements Series (TIAS), no. 4900 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of State, 1954)Google Scholar.

25. For an excellent description of a regime more focused on developing scientific understanding of an environmental problem, see Levy's description of the regime on European acid precipitation in Levy, Marc, “European Acid Rain: The Power of Tote-board Diplomacy,” in Haas, , Keohane, , and Levy, , Institutions for the Earth, pp. 75–132Google Scholar.

26. See International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL), 2 November 1973, reprinted in International Legal Materials (ILM), vol. 12 (Washington, D.C.: American Society of International Law, 1973), p. 1319 (hereafter cited by abbreviation, volume, and year); and Protocol of 1978 Relating to the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 17 February 1978, reprinted in ILM, vol. 17, 1978, p. 1546 (hereafter cited together as MARPOL 73/78).

27. M'Gonigle, and Zacher, , Pollution, Politics, and International Law, p. 100Google Scholar.

28. Kirby, J. H., “The Clean Seas Code: A Practical Cure of Operation Pollution,” in Third International Conference on Oil Pollution of the Sea: Report of Proceedings, Rome 7–9 October 1968 (Winchester, England: Warren and Son, 1968), pp. 201–19Google Scholar.

29. Kirby, , “The Clean Seas Code,” p. 206Google Scholar.

30. Assembly resolution 391, IMCO/IMO doc. resolution A.391(X), 1 December 1977, Annex, par. 5. All document citations herein refer to IMCO/IMO documents housed in the IMO Secretariat library. They are numbered similarly: according to issuing committee (abbreviated), meeting number, agenda item, and document number. Information documents are designated by “Inf.” prior to the document number. Circulars are designated by “Circ,” issuing committee, and circular number only. Resolutions are designated by adopting body, resolution number, and meeting number. Conference documents are cited by abbreviated conference title, preparatory meeting number, agenda item, and document number. Hence the above resolution citation would be interpreted as the 391st resolution adopted by the 10th meeting of the (IMCO) assembly.

31. 1969 Amendments to the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil, 21 October 1969, reprinted in Bernd Ruster and Bruno Simma, eds., International Protection of the Environment: Treaties and Related Documents (Dobbs Ferry, N.Y.: Oceana Publications, 1975).

32. Kirby, , “The Clean Seas Code,” p. 208Google Scholar.

33. See Kirby, , “The Clean Seas Code,” pp. 200 and 209Google Scholar; and Burke, William T., Legatski, Richard, and Woodhead, William W., National and International Law Enforcement in the Ocean (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1975), p. 129Google Scholar.

34. M'Gonigle, and Zacher, , Pollution, Politics, and International Law, p. 108Google Scholar.

35. See statements submitted by the U.S. delegation to the 13th Preparatory Session for an International Conference on Marine Pollution in 1973: IMCO/IMO doc. MP XIII/2(c)/5, 23 May 1972. (Using note 30 as a guide, this would be the 5th document issued relating to agenda item 2[c]). See also doc. MP XIII/2(a)/5, 1 June 1972; Victory, G., “Avoidance of Accidental and Deliberate Pollution,” in Coastal Water Pollution: Pollution of the Sea by Oil Spills (Brussels: North Atlantic Treaty Organization [NATO], 2–6 11 1970), p. 2.3Google Scholar.

36. M'Gonigle, and Zacher, , Pollution, Politics, and International Law, p. 114Google Scholar.

37. Ulvila, Jacob W., “Decisions with Multiple Objectives in Integrative Bargaining,” Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 1979, appendix A1.lGoogle Scholar.

38. M'Gonigle and Zacher, , Pollution, Politics, and International Law, pp. 122 and 130Google Scholar.

39. See Pritchard, Sonia Z., “Load on Top: From the Sublime to the Absurd,” Journal of Maritime Law and Commerce 9 (04 1978), pp. 185–224 at p. 194Google Scholar.

40. For an excellent discussion of state positions during both the 1973 and 1978 conferences, see M'Gonigle, and Zacher, , Pollution, Politics, and International Law, pp. 107–42Google Scholar.

41. See, for example, the estimate of 0.3 percent in Moss, James E., Character and Control of Sea Pollution by Oil (Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute, 1963), p. 47Google Scholar, and the estimate of 0.4 percent in IMCO/IMO doc. OP 1/21, 15 January 1965, of the Oil Pollution subcommittee. (Using note 30 as a guide, this indicates the only document issued relating to agenda item 21 at the 1st meeting of the subcommittee.)

42. Unfortunately, oil companies discontinued the surveys after 1977. Personal communication from Arthur McKenzie, Tanker Advisory Center, New York, 1992.

43. Informational document of the Marine Environment Protection Committee: IMCO/IMO doc. MEPC XVI/Inf.2,4 November 1981.

44. IMCO/IMO doc. MEPC 30/Inf.13,19 September 1990, p. 15.

45. For example, “IMO, Tanker Owners Urge Increase in Facilities Accepting Oily Wastes,” International Environment Reporter, 8 March 1989, p. 130.

46. See, for example, Camphuysen, C. J., Beached Bird Surveys in the Netherlands 1915–1988: Seabird Mortality in the Southern North Sea Since the Early Days of Oil Pollution (Amsterdam: Werkgroep Noordzee, 1989)Google Scholar; United States Coast Guard, Polluting Incidents In and Around U.S. Waters (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Commerce, 1973 and 1975–86)Google Scholar; Smit-Kroes, N., Harmonisatie Noordzeebeleid: Brief van de Minister van Verkeer en Waterstaat (Tweede Kamer der Staten-Generaal: 17–408) (Harmonization of North Sea policy: Letter from the Minister of Transport and Waterways; Lower House of Parliament) (The Hague: Government Printing Office of the Netherlands, 1988)Google Scholar; IMCO/IMO doc. MEPC 21/Inf. 8, 21 March 1985; and Second International Conference on the Protection of the North Sea,Quality Status of the North Sea: A Report by the Scientific and Technical Working Group (London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1987), p. 14Google Scholar.

47. Drewry Shipping Consultants, Ltd., The Impact of New Tanker Regulations, Drewry publication no. 94 (London: Drewry Shipping Consultants, Ltd., 1981), p. 25Google Scholar.

48. See IMCO/IMO doc. MEPC 30/Inf.13, 19 September 1990, p. 8; Second International Conference on the Protection of the North Sea, Quality Status of the North Sea, p. 57Google Scholar; Bergmeijer, Pieter, “The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships,” paper presented at the 17th Pacem in Maribus conference, Rotterdam, 08 1990, p. 12Google Scholar; and personal interview with Ball, E. J. M., Oil Companies International Marine Forum, London, 26 06 1991Google Scholar;

49. The detailed statistics in Table 1 and Figure 2 were developed from an electronic version of Clarkson Research Studies, Ltd., The Tanker Register (London: Clarkson Research Studies, Ltd., 1991)Google Scholar generously provided by Clarkson Research Studies, Ltd.

50. Okidi, Charles Odidi, Regional Control of Ocean Pollution: Legal and Institutional Problems and Prospects (Alphen aan den Rijn, The Netherlands: Sijthoff and Noordhoff, 1978), p. 34Google Scholar.

51. See p. 9 of “Cleaner Oceans: The Role of the IMO in the 1990s,” IMO News, no. 3, 1990, pp. 6–12Google Scholar.

52. The following discussion of the costs of LOT, COW, and SBT draws heavily on Waters, William G., Heaver, Trevor D., and Verrier, T., Oil Pollution from Tanker Operations: Causes, Costs, Controls (Vancouver, B.C.: Center for Transportation Studies, 1980)Google Scholar.

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54. See Osborne, M. G. and Ferguson, J. M., “Technology, MARPOL, and Tankers: Successes and Failures,” IMAS 90: Maritime Technology and the Environment (London: Institute of Marine Engineers, 1990), p. 6–2Google Scholar; Testimony of Gray, William, in U.S. Congress, House Committee on Government Operations, Oil Tanker Pollution: Hearings Before the Subcommittee on Government Activities and Transportation, 18 and 19 July 1978, 95th Congress, 2d sess., 1978, p. 92Google Scholar; and IMCO/IMO doc. MEPC V/Inf.A, 27 April 1976.

55. See Cummins, Philip A., Logue, Dennis E., Tollison, Robert D., and Willett, Thomas D., “Oil Tanker Pollution Control: Design Criteria Versus Effective Liability Assessment,” Journal of Maritime Law and Commerce 7 (10 1975), pp. 181–82Google Scholar; and Pearson, Charles S., International Marine Environmental Policy: The Economic Dimension (Baltimore, Md.: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1975), p. 98Google Scholar.

56. See IMCO/IMO doc. MEPC V/Inf. 4, 8 March 1976, p. A18; and M'Gonigle, and Zacher, , Pollution, Politics, and International Law, p. 134Google Scholar.

57. See IMCO/IMO doc. MEPC 31/8/5, 4 April 1991; and Osborne, and Ferguson, , ‘Technology, MARPOL, and Tankers,“ p. 6–2Google Scholar.

58. Personal interview with Sean Connaughton, marine transportation analyst, American Petroleum Institute, Washington, D.C., 8 April 1992.

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63. MARPOL 73/78, Annex I, Regulations 4 and 5.

64. Personal interview with John Foxwell, Shell International Marine, London, 27 06 1991.

65. Charles Hipwood, United Kingdom Marine Department, cited in Pritchard, , Oil Pollution Control, p. 23Google Scholar.

66. While Iran and Iraq never have signed either agreement, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, and Venezuela have never signed MARPOL.

67. Cummins, et al. , “Oil Tanker Pollution Control,” p. 171Google Scholar.

68. IMCO/IMO doc. OP/CONF/2,1 September 1961.

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72. Peet, Gerard, Operational Discharges from Ships: An Evaluation of the Application of the Discharge Provisions of the MARPOL Convention by Its Contracting Parties (Amsterdam: AIDEnvironment, 1992)Google Scholar, annexes 5 and 10.

73. See United Kingdom Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution, Eighth Report: Oil Pollution of the Sea (London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1981), p. 195Google Scholar; and Smit-Kroes, Harmonisatie Noordzeebeleid.

74. “Memorandum of Understanding on Port State Control,” reprinted in ILM, vol. 21, 1982, p.l.

75. Acuerdo de Viña del Mar: Acuerdo Latinoamericano Sobre Control de Buques por el Estado Rector Del Puerto (Viña del Mar Accord: Latin American Accord on Port State Control of Vessels), 5 11 1992Google Scholar. The text of the agreement is almost identical to the text of the “Memorandum of Understanding on Port State Control,” cited above. Reference to the agreement can be found in Secretariat of the Memorandum of Understanding on Port State Control, Annual Report (The Hague: The Netherlands Government Printing Office, 1992)Google Scholar.

76. Secretariat of the Memorandum of Understanding on Port State Control, Annual Report (The Hague: The Netherlands Government Printing Office, various years)Google Scholar.

77. See Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), “OECD Study on Flags of Convenience,” Journal of Maritime Law and Commerce 4 (01 1973), pp. 231–54Google Scholar.

78. Dempsey, Paul Stephen, “Compliance and Enforcement in International Law—Oil Pollution of the Marine Environment by Ocean Vessels,” Northwestern Journal of International Law and Business 6 (Summer 1984), pp. 459–561 and p. 576 in particularGoogle Scholar.

79. See ibid., p. 526; and personal interview with Ronald Carly, Ministry of Transportation, Brussels, 10 June 1991.

80. Peet, , Operational Discharges from Ships, pp. 17–18Google Scholar, Tables 11 and 12; and Stoop, Marie-Jose, Olieverontreiniging door schepen op de noordzee over de periode 1982–1987: opsporing en vervolging (Oil pollution by ships on the North Sea 1982–1987: Investigations and prosecution) (Amsterdam: Werkgroep Noordzee, 07 1989)Google Scholar.

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82. Dempsey, , “Compliance and Enforcement in International Law,” p. 537Google Scholar.

83. Personal interview with E. J. M. Ball.

84. MARPOL 73/78, Article 4(4).

85. Mitchell, “From Paper to Practice,” Table 4–5.

86. IMCO/IMO doc. MEPC 29/10/3,15 January 1990.

87. Lomas, Owen, “The Prosecution of Marine Oil Pollution Offences and the Practice of Insuring Against Fines,” Journal of Environmental Law, vol. 1, no. 1, 1989, p. 54CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See also IMCO/IMO doc. MEPC 32/14/3, 17 January 1992.

88. Personal interview with John Foxwell, Shell International Marine, London, 27 June 1991.

89. Bergmeijer, , “The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships,” p. 12Google Scholar.

90. MARPOL 73/78, Articles 5(2) and 5(3).

91. Personal interviews with John Foxwell; and with Richard Schiferli, Memorandum of Understanding Secretariat, Rijswijk, The Netherlands, 17 July 1991.

92. Personal interview with Daniel Sheehan.

93. See Peet, Operational Discharges from Ships, annex 15; and Dempsey, “Compliance and Enforcement in International Law.”

94. Axelrod and Keohane, “Achieving Cooperation Under Anarchy.”

95. IMCO/IMO doc. MEPC 30/Inf.32,12 October 1990.

96. See IMCO/IMO docs. MEPC 19/5/2, 21 October 1983; MEPC 22/8/2,8 October 1985; and MEPC 30/Inf.30,15 October 1990.

97. Neither strategy was incentive-based, as was the funding of compliance under the Montreal Protocol and Framework Convention on Climate Change. For development of the distinction between these three strategies, see Reiss, Albert J. Jr., “Consequences of Compliance and Deterrence Models of Law Enforcement for the Exercise of Police Discretion,” Law and Contemporary Problems 47 (Fall 1984), pp. 83–122CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Hawkins, Keith, Environment and Enforcement: Regulation and the Social Definition of Pollution (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

98. Reiss, “Consequences of Compliance and Deterrence Models of Law Enforcement for the Exercise of Police Discretion.”

99. I am indebted to Robert O. Keohane for the notion of a strategic triangle of compliance.

100. Chayes and Chayes, “On Compliance.”

101. See Mitchell, Ronald B., “Intentional Oil Pollution of the Oceans,” in Haas, , Keohane, , and Levy, , Institutions for the Earth, pp. 183–248Google Scholar.

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