Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-jkksz Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T13:42:42.392Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Law and compassion

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  12 May 2017

Dermot Feenan*
Affiliation:
Associate Research Fellow, Institute of Advanced Legal Studies, London, UK. E-mail: [email protected].

Abstract

This paper provides the first overarching exploration and discussion of the relationship between law and compassion, based on a broad review of law and associated literature. The paper reviews the English-language literature worldwide, identifying and analysing key themes. It lays out a number of themes by which the relationship may be examined, including the problematic of defining compassion, addressing the concept of compassion, its components, to whom it is owed and under what conditions it is owed. The paper reviews how compassion is defined in formal law, including in case-law and legislation across a range of common-law and civil-law countries, and in international human rights and humanitarian law−revealing various judicial and legislative approaches to the place, meaning and application of compassion. The discussion of primary and secondary sources suggests a number of ways of thinking about the place or absence of compassion in law: how it helps theorise law, including its normative presuppositions and the conceptualisation of law. The paper concludes with consideration of possible pathways for future research on law and compassion.

Type
Articles
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2017 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

Thanks to Rebecca O'Rourke, the journal editors and anonymous reviewer; the co-contributors of papers to the special issue that this paper introduces; the American Bar Foundation, which provided a supportive environment to me as Visiting Scholar to conduct some research for the paper, May 2016; Belinda Crothers, Institute of Advanced Legal Studies, London, for cooperation in hosting the Symposium from which the papers emanate; participants in the Compassion Reading Group, who helped me cultivate some early thoughts; and Daniel Bedford for assistance in organising the Symposium, with regret that he was unable to co-edit the issue. Versions of this paper were presented at the Law and Society Association Annual Meeting, New Orleans, 2016, and the Socio-Legal Studies Association Conference, Lancaster, 2016; and I am grateful to all those there who offered comment.

References

Abel, R. (1988) The Legal Profession of England and Wales. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.Google Scholar
Abrams, K. and Keren, H. (2010) ‘Who's Afraid of Law and the Emotions?’, Minnesota Law Review 94: 19972074.Google Scholar
Acorn, A. (2004) Compulsory Compassion: A Critique of Restorative Justice. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press.Google Scholar
Agamben, G. (1995/1998) Homo Sacer: Sovereign Power and Bare Life, trans. Heller-Roazen, D.. Palo Alto: Stanford University Press (originally published as Homo Sacer: Il potere sovrano e la vita nuda).Google Scholar
Agamben, G. (2003/2005) State of Exception, trans. Attell, K.. Chicago: University of Chicago Press (originally published as Stato di Eccezione. Homo sacer, 2,1).Google Scholar
Arendt, H. (1963) On Revolution. New York: Viking.Google Scholar
Avgoustinos, C. (2007) ‘The Compassionate Judge’, Public Space: The Journal of Law and Social Justice 1: 141.Google Scholar
Bandes, S.A. (1999) ‘Introduction’ in Bandes, S.A. (ed.) The Passions of Law. New York: New York University Press, 111.Google Scholar
Bandes, S.A. (2009) ‘Empathetic Judging and the Rule of Law’, Cardozo Law Review de Novo: 133148.Google Scholar
Bandes, S.A. (2017) ‘Compassion and the Rule of Law’, International Journal of Law in Context 13(2): 184196.Google Scholar
Bandes, S.A. and Blumenthal, J. (2012) ‘Emotion and the Law’, Annual Review of Law and Social Sciences 8: 161181.Google Scholar
Bar Standards Board (2015) Professional Statement for Barristers. London: Bar Standards Board.Google Scholar
Beier, S., Eib, C., Oehmann, V., Fiedler, P. and Fiedler, K. (2014) ‘InfIuence of Judges’ Behaviors on Perceived Procedural Justice’, Journal of Applied Social Psychology 44: 4659.Google Scholar
Bell, R.H. (1998) Simone Weil: The Way of Justice as Compassion. Boston: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.Google Scholar
Berlant, L. (ed.) (2004) Compassion: The Culture and Politics of an Emotion. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Biggs, H. (2011) ‘Legitimate Compassion or Compassionate Legitimation? Reflections on the Policy for Prosecutors in Respect of Cases of Encouraging or Assisting Suicide’, Feminist Legal Studies 19(1): 8391.Google Scholar
Biggs, H. (2017) ‘From Dispassionate Law to Compassionate Outcomes in Healthcare Law’, International Journal of Law in Context 13(2): 172183.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blum, L. (1980) ‘Compassion’, in Rorty, A.O. (ed.) Explaining Emotions. Berkeley: University of California Press, 507517.Google Scholar
Boland, R. (2015) ‘The Delhi Bus Rape: A Mother Speaks’, Irish Times (Weekend Review), 31 October, 1–2, p. 1.Google Scholar
Bourke, J. (2014) The Story of Pain: From Prayer to Painkillers. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Burnett, G. (1823) The Life of Sir Matthew Hale. London: C. & J. Rivington.Google Scholar
Butler-Cole, V. (2015) ‘Compassion and Litigation: Decisions at the End of Life in the Court of Protection’, presentation at the Symposium on Law and Compassion, London, 1 July.Google Scholar
Cantrell, D.J. (2010) ‘Can Compassionate Practice Also Be Good Legal Practice: Answers from the Lives of Buddhist Lawyers’, Rutgers Journal of Law and Religion 12(1): 175.Google Scholar
Chan, B. and Somerville, M. (2016) ‘Converting the “Right to Life” to the “Right to Physician-Assisted Suicide and Euthanasia”: An Analysis of Carter v Canada (Attorney General), Supreme Court of Canada’, Medical Law Review 24(2): 143175.Google Scholar
Chouliaraki, L. (2006) The Spectatorship of Suffering. London: SAGE.Google Scholar
Cloud, A.M. (1990) ‘Introduction: Compassion and Judging’, Arizona State Law Journal 22: 1323.Google Scholar
Colker, R. (1989) ‘Feminism, Theology, and Abortion: Toward Love, Compassion and Wisdom’, California Law Review 77: 10111075.Google Scholar
Cotterrell, R. (1992) The Politics of Jurisprudence: A Critical Introduction to Legal Philosophy. London: Butterworths.Google Scholar
Crisp, R. (2008) ‘Compassion and Beyond’, Ethical Theory and Moral Practice 11: 233246.Google Scholar
Daicoff, S. (1997) ‘Lawyer, Know Thyself. A Review of Empirical Research on Attorney Attributes Bearing on Professionalism’, American University Law Review 46: 13371427.Google Scholar
de Zulueta, P. (2013a) ‘Compassion in 21st Century Medicine: Is it Sustainable?’, Clinical Ethics 8(4): 119128.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
de Zulueta, P. (2013b) ‘Compassion in Healthcare’, Clinical Ethics 8(4): 8790.Google Scholar
Del Mar, M. (2017) ‘Imagining by Feeling: A Case for Compassion in Legal Reasoning’, International Journal of Law in Context 13(2): 143157.Google Scholar
Diamantides, M. (2003) ‘In the Company of Priests: Meaninglessness, Suffering and Compassion in the Thoughts of Nietzsche and Levinas’, Cardozo Law Review 24(3) 12751307.Google Scholar
Diamantides, M. (ed.) (2007) Levinas, Law, Politics. London: Routledge Cavendish.Google Scholar
Diamantides, M. (2017) ‘Law and Compassion: Between Ethics and Economy, Philosophical Speculation and Arche-ology’, International Journal of Law in Context 13(2): 197211.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Director of Public Prosecutions (2014) Policy for Prosecutors in Respect of Cases of Encouraging or Assisting Suicide. London: DPP.Google Scholar
Dworkin, R. (1977) Taking Rights Seriously. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Eldergill, A. (2015) ‘Compassion and the Law: A Judicial Perspective’, Elder Law Journal 3: 268278.Google Scholar
Engel, D. (1984) ‘The Oven Bird's Song: Insiders, Outsiders, and Personal Injuries in an American Community’, Law & Society Review 18: 551582.Google Scholar
Epstein, R.A. (1990) ‘Compassion and Compulsion’, Arizona State Law Journal 22: 2530.Google Scholar
Epstein, R.M. and Hundert, E.M. (2002) ‘Defining and Assessing Professional Competence’, Journal of the American Medical Association 287(2): 226235.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fassin, D. (2011) Humanitarian Reason: A Moral History of the Present. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Feenan, D., Bedford, D. and Herring, J. (2015) ‘Judicial Compassion’, Elder Law Journal 4: 392398.Google Scholar
Feigenson, N.R. (1997) ‘Sympathy and Legal Judgment: A Psychological Analysis’, Tennessee Law Review 65: 178.Google Scholar
Ferguson, R.A. (2012) ‘The Place of Mercy in Legal Discourse’, in Sarat, A. (ed.) Merciful Judgments and Contemporary Society: Legal Problems, Legal Possibilities. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press, 1982.Google Scholar
Fisher, C.E. and Appelbaum, P.S. (2010) ‘Diagnosing Consciousness: Neuroimaging, Law, and the Vegetative State’, Journal of Law, Medicine and Ethics 38: 374385.Google Scholar
Francis, R. (2013) Mid Staffordshire NHS Foundation Trust Public Inquiry, Report of the Mid Staffordshire NHS Foundation Trust Public Inquiry, February 2013, HC 947.Google Scholar
Gaertner, S.L. and Dovidio, J.F. (1986) ‘The Aversive Form of Racism’ in Dovidio, J.F. and Gaertner, S.L. (eds) Prejudice, Discrimination and Racism. San Diego: Academic Press, 6189.Google Scholar
Gearty, C. (2006) Can Human Rights Survive? Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Gerdy, K.B. (2013) ‘The Heart of Lawyering: Clients, Empathy, and Compassion’, Vol. 3: Religious Conviction, Paper 24.Google Scholar
Gilbert, P. (ed.) (2005) Compassion: Conceptualisations, Research & Use in Psychotherapy. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Gilligan, C. (1982) In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women's Development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Gilmore, H.W. (1987) ‘Wade H. McCree, Jr.: A Compassionate and Great Judge’, Michigan Law Review 86: 231243.Google Scholar
Glass, A. (1997) ‘The Compassionate Decision-Maker’, Law\Text\Culture 3: 162175.Google Scholar
Grubb, A. (2001) ‘Euthanasia in England: A Law Lacking Compassion?’, European Journal of Health Law 8: 8993.Google Scholar
Harris, A.P. (2011) ‘Compassion and Critique’, Columbia Journal of Race and Law 1: 326352.Google Scholar
Herring, J. (2017) ‘Compassion, Ethics of Care and Legal Rights’, International Journal of Law in Context 13(2): 158171.Google Scholar
Hillyard, P., Pantazis, C., Tombs, S. and Gordon, D. (2004) Beyond Criminology: Taking Harm Seriously. London: Pluto Press.Google Scholar
Hobbes, T. (1651/2016) Leviathan, Missner, M. (ed.). London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Horder, J. (1992) Provocation and Responsibility. Oxford: Clarendon Press.Google Scholar
Ichikawa, A. (1979) ‘Compassionate Politics: Buddhist Concepts as Political Guide’, Journal of Church and State 21(2): 247263.Google Scholar
Isba (2002) What's the Measure of Judicial Excellence? Subcommittee on the Criteria for an Excellent Judge, ISBA Bench and Bar Section Council.Google Scholar
Karlan, P.S. (1995) ‘Bringing Compassion into the Province of Judging: Justice Blackmun and the Outsiders’, North Dakota Law Review 71: 173185.Google Scholar
Keating, H. and Bridgeman, J. (2012) ‘Compassionate Killings: The Case for a Partial Defence’, Modern Law Review 75(5): 697721.Google Scholar
Keeva, S. (2006) ‘Compassionate Checklist’, American Bar Association Journal 92: 76.Google Scholar
Kelch, T.G. (2013) ‘Short History of (Mostly) Western Animal Law: Part II’, Animal Law 19(2): 347390.Google Scholar
Kennard, J. (1997) ‘Why Justice Is More than Law’, Women Lawyers Journal 83(4): 1011.Google Scholar
King, M. (2003) ‘Applying Therapeutic Jurisprudence from the Bench: Challenges and Opportunities’, Alternative Law Journal 28(4): 172175, 198.Google Scholar
L'Heureux Dubé, C. (1997) ‘Making a Difference: The Pursuit of a Compassionate Justice’, University of British Columbia Law Review 31: 115.Google Scholar
Law Commission (2003) Partial Defences to Murder, Consultation Paper No. 173. London: Law Commission of England and Wales.Google Scholar
Lazarus, R.S. (1991) Emotion and Adaptation. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Legal Education and Training Review (2013) Setting Standards. London: Legal Education and Training Review.Google Scholar
Levinas, E. (2000/1991) On Thinking of the Other, trans. Smith, M.B. and Harshav, B.. London: The Athlone Press (originally published as Entre Nous: Essais sur le penser-a-l'autre).Google Scholar
Lewis, P. (2006) ‘Assisted Dying in France: The Evolution of Assisted Dying in France: A Third Way?’, Medical Law Review 14: 4472.Google Scholar
Lutz, C. (2002) ‘Feminist Emotions’ in Mageo, J.M. (ed.) Power and the Self. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 194215.Google Scholar
Madeira, J.-L. (2006) ‘Lashing Reason to the Mast: Understanding Judicial Constraints on Emotion in Personal Injury Litigation’, University of California Davis Law Review 40: 137197.Google Scholar
Markel, D. (2004) ‘Against Mercy’, Minnesota Law Review 88: 14211480.Google Scholar
Marks, J. (2007) ‘Rousseau's Discriminating Defense of Compassion’, American Political Science Review 101(4): 727739.Google Scholar
Moon, C. (2012) ‘“Who'll Pay Reparations on My Soul”? Compensation, Social Control and Social Suffering’, Social & Legal Studies 21(2): 187199.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mullock, A. (2010) ‘Overlooking the Criminally Compassionate: What Are the Implications of Prosecutorial Policy on Encouraging or Assisting Suicide?’, Medical Law Review 18: 442470.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Muraskin, D. (2007) ‘Book Notes: Can Human Rights Survive? ’, Stanford Journal of International Law 43: 319323.Google Scholar
Murphy, J.G. (1988) ‘Mercy and Legal Justice’ in Murphy, J.G. and Hampton, J. (eds) Forgiveness and Mercy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 162186.Google Scholar
Nietzsche, F. (1887/2013) On the Genealogy of Morals: A Polemic, trans. Scarpitti, M.A.. London: Penguin (originally published as Zur Genealogie der Moral: Eine Streitschrift).Google Scholar
Noonan, J.T. Jr (1996) ‘Relation of Words to Power’, St. John's Law Review 70(1): 1322.Google Scholar
Nussbaum, M.C. (1996a) ‘Compassion: The Basic Social Emotion’, Social Philosophy and Policy 13(1): 2758.Google Scholar
Nussbaum, M.C. (1996b) ‘Emotion in the Language of Judging’, St. John's Law Review 70(1): 2330.Google Scholar
Nussbaum, M.C. (2001) Upheavals of Thought: The Intelligence of Emotions. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Nussbaum, M.C. (2013) Political Emotions: Why Love Matters for Justice. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press.Google Scholar
O'Hara, M. (2013) ‘We Were Child Slaves from a Young Age’, The Guardian, 25 September, p. 40.Google Scholar
Ost, S. and Mullock, A. (2011) ‘Pushing the Boundaries of Lawful Assisted Dying in the Netherlands: Existential Suffering and Lay Assistance’, European Journal of Health Law 18(2): 163190.Google ScholarPubMed
Pinson, H., Arnot, M. and Candappa, M. (2010) Education, Asylum and the ‘Non-Citizen’ Child: The Politics of Compassion and Belonging. London: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
Pirie, F. (2006) ‘Legal Complexity on the Tibetan Plateau’, Journal of Legal Pluralism & Unofficial Law 53–54: 7799.Google Scholar
Plattner, A.L. (1997) ‘Australia's Northern Territory: The First Jurisdiction to Legislate Voluntary Euthanasia, and the First to Repeal It’, DePaul Journal of Health Care Law 1(3): 645654.Google Scholar
Resnik, J. (1988) ‘On the Bias: Feminist Reconsiderations of the Aspirations for Our Judges’, Southern California Law Review 61: 18771944.Google Scholar
Roach Anleu, S. and Mack, K. (2014) ‘Judicial Performance and Experiences of Judicial Work: Findings from Socio-Legal Research’, Oñati Socio-legal Series 4(5): 10151040.Google Scholar
Rousseau, J.-J. (1755/1984) A Discourse on Inequality, trans. Cranston, M.. Harmondsworth: Penguin (originally published as Discours sur l'origine et les fondements de l'inégalité parmi les hommes).Google Scholar
Satin, M. (2008) ‘Healing First! Time for the U.S. Justice System to Get Less Mechanistic and More Compassionate’, Radical Middle 119. Available at: <www.radicalmiddle.com/x_wexler.htm> (accessed 1 March 2017).Google Scholar
Saucier, D.A., Miller, C.T. and Doucet, N. (2005) ‘Differences in Helping Whites and Blacks: A Meta-Analysis’, Personality & Social Psychological Review 9(1): 216.Google Scholar
Saunders, R. (2008) ‘Lost in Translation: Expressions of Human Suffering, the Language of Human Rights, and the South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission’, SUR – International Journal on Human Rights 9: 5168.Google Scholar
Scarry, E. (1985) The Body in Pain: The Making and Unmaking of the World. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Schopenhauer, A. (1840/1995) On The Basis of Morality. Providence: Berghahn Books.Google Scholar
Schroeder, M. (1990) ‘Compassion on Appeal’, Arizona State Law Journal 22: 4552.Google Scholar
Schroeder, M. (2002) ‘Judging with a Difference’, Yale Journal of Law and Feminism 14: 255261.Google Scholar
Schwarzenegger, C. and Summers, S.J. (2005) Criminal Law and Assisted Suicide in Switzerland. Hearing with the Select Committee on the Assisted Dying for the Terminally Ill Bill, House of Lords, UK, 3 February.Google Scholar
Shepherd, L. (2003) ‘Face to Face: A Call for Radical Responsibility in Place of Compassion’, St. John's Law Review 77: 445514.Google Scholar
Smith, A. (1759/1853) The Theory of Moral Sentiments. London: Henry G. Bohn.Google Scholar
Sontag, S. (2003) Regarding the Pain of Others. London: Hamish Hamilton.Google Scholar
Staihar, J. and Macedo, S. (2012) ‘Defending a Role for Mercy in a Criminal Justice System’ in Sarat, A. (ed.) Merciful Judgments and Contemporary Society: Legal Problems, Legal Possibilities. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press, 138194.Google Scholar
Teuber, A. (1986) ‘Simone Weil: Equality as Compassion’, Philosophy and Phenomenological Research 43: 221236.Google Scholar
Tocqueville, A.D. (1840/2003) Democracy in America, Frohnen, B. (ed.). Washington, DC: Regnery Publishing.Google Scholar
Ure, M. and Frost, M. (eds) (2014) The Politics of Compassion. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Veitch, S. (2007) Law and Irresponsibility: On the Legitimation of Human Suffering. London: Routledge-Cavendish.Google Scholar
Waldron, J. (2010) ‘Inhuman and Degrading Treatment: The Words Themselves’, Canadian Journal of Law and Jurisprudence 23(2): 269286.Google Scholar
Walklate, S. (2012) ‘Courting Compassion: Victims, Policy, and the Question of Justice’, Howard Journal of Criminal Justice 51(2): 109121.Google Scholar
Whitebrook, M. (2002) ‘Compassion as a Political Virtue’, Political Studies 50: 529544.Google Scholar
Wilkinson, I. (2017) ‘The Controversy of Compassion as an Awakening to Our Conflicted Social Condition’, International Journal of Law in Context 13(2): 212224.Google Scholar
Woodward, K. (2002) ‘Calculating Compassion’, Indiana Law Journal 77(2): 223245.Google Scholar
Wuthnow, R. (1991) Acts of Compassion: Caring for Others and Helping Ourselves. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Zipursky, B. (1990) ‘ DeShaney and the Jurisprudence of Compassion’, New York University Law Review 65: 11011147.Google Scholar