Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-fscjk Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-24T03:12:14.427Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Race-making, religion and rights in the post-colony: unmasking the pathogen in assembling a Hindu nation

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 April 2022

Ratna Kapur Open the ORCID record for Ratna Kapur [Opens in a new window]
Ratna Kapur*
Affiliation:
Professor of International Law, Queen Mary University of London and Senior Faculty, Institute of Global Law and Policy, Harvard Law School. Regular Distinguished Visiting Professor, Symbiosis School of Law, Pune, India
*
*Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This paper intervenes in critical socio-legal/post-colonial scholarship on human rights directed at how religion is constitutive of race and shapes who and what is regarded as ‘human’ and entitled to rights. It focuses on the Indian post-colony and legal persecution of the Tablighi Jamaat, a global, quietest Islamic movement, by the Hindu Right government during the Covid pandemic. It analyses how religion structures race in Hindu nationalist discourse to transform the Muslim into a perpetual outsider and an existential and epistemic threat to the Hindu nation and rights of the Hindu racial majority. The discussion connects to the epistemic anxiety generated by the alternative worldviews presented by this racialised ‘Other’ that shape legal consciousness and rights interventions globally. In complicating how anti-Muslim racism and Islamophobia are integral to the transnational histories of race and race-making, the analysis triggers a rethinking of human rights interventions and the epistemological closures they enact.

Keywords

human rightscritical socio-legal/post-colonial theoryracereligion and rightsanti-Muslim racism/IslamophobiaCovidHindu nationalismTablighi Jamaat
Type
Article
Information
International Journal of Law in Context , Volume 18 , Special Issue 4: Contextual Legal Pedagogy , December 2022 , pp. 499 - 516
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2022. Published by Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Cases

Konan Kodio Ganstone v. State of Maharashtra 2020 SCC Online Bom 869, (2020) 3 AIR Bom R (Cri) 116.Google Scholar
Maulana Ala Hadrami v. Union of India 2020 SCC Online SC 629, (2020) 3 Supreme Court Cases (Cri) 555, (2020) 8 Supreme Court Cases 118.Google Scholar
Md Kameual Islam v. The State 2020 SCC Online Mad 1171, 2020 Cri LJ 3692.Google Scholar
Mohammad Jamal v. Union of India 2020 SCC Online Del 603.Google Scholar
Abbas, T (2019) Islamophobia and Radicalisation: A Vicious Cycle. New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
About Us (2020) Hindu Swayamsevak Sangh USA. Available at: https://www.hssus.org/about-us (accessed 13 October 2020).Google Scholar
Abu-Lughod, L (2013) Do Muslim Women Need Saving? Cambridge: Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Achiume, ET and Carbado, DW (2021) Critical race theory meets Third World approaches to international law. UCLA Law Review 67, 1462–1502.Google Scholar
Alexiev, A (2005) Tablighi Jamaa'at: Jihad's stealthy legions. Middle East Quarterly 12, 3–11.Google Scholar
Ali, J (2003) Islamic revivalism: the case of the Tablīghī Jamā‘at. Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs 23, 173–181.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ali, JA (2011) Piety among Tablīghī women. Contemporary Islam: Dynamics of Muslim Life 5, 225–247.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Allen, C (2010) Islamophobia. Burlington: Ashgate.Google Scholar
Anghie, A (2004) Imperialism, Sovereignty and the Making of International Law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Anghie, A et al. (eds) (2003) The Third World and International Order: Law, Politics, and Globalization. Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Asad, T (2000) What do human rights do? An anthropological enquiry. Theory & Event 4, muse.jhu.edu/article/32601.Google Scholar
Asad, T (2003) Formations of the Secular: Christianity, Islam, Modernity. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Ashutosh, I (2022) The transnational routes of White and Hindu nationalisms. Ethnic and Racial Studies 45, 319–339.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ayoub, AA (2020) A Muslim registry: a look at past practices and what may come next. In Choudhury, CA and Beydoun, KA (eds), Islamophobia and the Law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 153–169.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aziz, S (2021) Orientalism, empire, and the racial Muslim. In Sonn, T (ed.), Overcoming Orientalism: Essays in Honor of John L Esposito. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 221–244.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aziz, SF (2022) The Racial Muslim: When Racism Quashes Religious Freedom. Oakland: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Bajoria, J (2020) Corona jihad is only the latest manifestation: Islamophobia in India has been years in the making. Human Rights Watch, 5 May. Available at: https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/05/01/coronajihad-only-latest-manifestation-islamophobia-india-has-been-years-making (accessed 12 January 2022).Google Scholar
Barreto, J-M (2013) Human Rights from a Third World Perspective: Critique, History and International Law. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.Google Scholar
Brown, W (2002) Suffering the paradoxes of rights. In Brown, W and Halley, J (eds), Left Legalism/Left Critique. Durham: Duke University Press, pp. 420–434.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burton, F and Stewart, S (2008) Tablighi Jamaat: an indirect line to terrorism. Stratfor: WorldView, 23 January. Available at: https://worldview.stratfor.com/article/tablighi-jamaat-indirect-line-terrorism (accessed 14 January 2022).Google Scholar
Carbado, DW (2005) Racial naturalization. American Quarterly 57, 633–658.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Césaire, A (1972) Discourse on Colonialism. New York: Monthly Review Press.Google Scholar
Chakrabarti, A (2018) Faith and Social Movements: Religious Reform in Contemporary India. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Chandler, D (ed.) (2002) Rethinking Human Rights: Critical Approaches to International Politics. Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chatterji, AP, Hansen, TB and Jaffrelot, C (2019) Majoritarian State: How Hindu Nationalism Is Changing India. Uttar Pradesh: Harper Collins India.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chimni, BS (2017) International Law and World Order: A Critique of Contemporary Approaches, 2nd edn. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chishti, S (2021) The nightmare: the Modi government's persecution of the Tablighi Jamaat. The Caravan: A Journal of Politics and Culture. 30 January. Available at: https://caravanmagazine.in/politics/nightmare-persecution-tablighi-jamaat (accessed 13 January 2022).Google Scholar
Choudhury, CA and Beydoun, KA (eds) (2020) Islamophobia and the Law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cossman, B and Kapur, R (2001) Secularism's Last Sigh? Hindutva and the (Mis)Rule of Law. Delhi; Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Da Silva, DF (2007) Towards a Global Idea of Race. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar
Silva DF, Da and Harris, M (eds) (2018) Routledge Handbook of Law, Race and the Postcolonial. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Darian-Smith, E (2010) Religion, Race, Rights: Landmarks in the History of Modern Anglo-American Law. Oxford: Hart Publishing.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
De Sousa Santos, B (2014) Epistemologies of the South: Justice Against Epistemicide. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Desautel, J (2021) A prolegomenon to the study of racial ideology in the era of international human rights. UCLA Law Review 67, 1536–1578.Google Scholar
Dhanda, M (2015) Anti-castism and misplaced nativism: mapping caste as an aspect of race. Radical Philosophy 192, 33–43.Google Scholar
Douzinas, C (2000) The End of Human Rights: Critical Legal Thought at the Turn of the Century. Oxford: Hart.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Douzinas, C (2007) Human Rights and Empire: The Political Philosophy of Cosmopolitanism. London: Routledge-Cavendish.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
El-Enany, N (2020) (B)ordering Britain: Law, Race and Empire. Manchester: Manchester University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ellis-Petersen, H (2020) British Muslims held for two months in India claim religious persecution. The Guardian, 17 June. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jun/17/british-muslims-held-in-india-accused-of-violating-coronavirus-lockdown (accessed 14 August 2021).Google Scholar
Esposito, JL and Kalin, I (eds) (2011) Islamophobia: The Challenge of Pluralism in the 21st Century. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Fanon, F (1963 [1961]) The Wretched of the Earth. Farrington, C (trans.). New York: Grove Press.Google Scholar
Fanon, F (1986 [1952]) Black Skin, White Masks. Markmamm, CL (trans.). London: Pluto Press.Google Scholar
Fitzpatrick, P (1987) Racism and the innocence of law. Journal of Law and Society 14, 119–132.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fitzpatrick, P (1989) ‘The desperate vacuum’: imperialism and law in the experience of the Enlightenment. Droit et société 13, 347–358.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fitzpatrick, P (ed.) (1995) Nationalism, Racism and the Rule of Law. Aldershot: Dartmouth.Google Scholar
Fitzpatrick, P (2001) Modernism and the Grounds of Law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Foucault, M (1977) Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. Sheridan, A (trans.). New York: Vintage Books.Google Scholar
Gandhi, L (1998) Postcolonial Theory: A Critical Introduction. New York: Columbia University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gettleman, J, Schultz, K and Raj, S (2020) In India, coronavirus fans religious hatred. The New York Times, 12 April. Available at: https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/12/world/asia/india-coronavirus-muslims-bigotry.html (accessed 12 August 2021).Google Scholar
Ghoshal, S (2020) Race, religion and the politics of counting: historicizing Hindu nationalism. In Ray, A and Banerjee-Dube, I (eds), Nation, Nationalism and the Public Sphere: Religious Politics in India. New Delhi: SAGE Publications, pp. 83–105CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Golder, B (2014) Beyond redemption? Problematising the critique of human rights in contemporary international legal thought. London Review of International Law 2, 77–114.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Golder, B (2015) Foucault and the Politics of Rights. Stanford: Stanford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Golwalkar, MS (1939) We or Our Nationhood Defined. Nagpur: Bharat Publications.Google Scholar
Golwalkar, MS (1966) Bunch of Thoughts. Bangalore: Vikrama Prakashan.Google Scholar
Goodwin, M (2020) Unmasking Islamophobia: anti-Muslim hostility and/as White supremacy. Journal of the American Academy of Religion 88, 354–386.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gordon, R (2000) Critical race theory and international law: convergence and divergence. Villanova Law Review 45, 827–840.Google Scholar
Grandin, G (2015) The Empire of Necessity: Slavery, Freedom, and Deception in the New World. New York: Picador.Google Scholar
Guruji, Golwalkar (2021) Hindu Swayamsevak Sangh USA. Available at: https://www.hssus.org/guruji-golwalkar (accessed 6 April 2021).Google Scholar
Hafez, F (2018) Schools of thought in Islamophobia studies: prejudice, racism, and decoloniality. Islamophobia Studies Journal 4, 210–225.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hamzić, V (2019) The Dera paradigm: homecoming of the gendered other. Ethnoscripts 21, 34–57.Google Scholar
Hansen, TB (1999) The Saffron Wave: Democracy and Hindu Nationalism in Modern India. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hartman, SV (1997) Scenes of Subjection: Terror, Slavery, and Self-making in Nineteenth-century America. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Hassan, O and Hammond, A (2011) The rise and fall of American's freedom agenda in Afghanistan: counter-terrorism, nation-building and democracy. International Journal of Human Rights 15, 532–551.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hindu Swayamsevak Sangh USA (2020) Facebook, 3 June. Available at: https://www.facebook.com/hssus/photos/pcb.10156898715471394/10156900108986394/ (accessed 14 August 2021).Google Scholar
Hirschkind, C and Mahmood, S (2002) Feminism, the Taliban, and politics of counter-insurgency. Anthropological Quarterly 75, 339–354.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hunt, L (2007) Inventing Human Rights: A History. New York: WW Norton.Google Scholar
Hussein, N and Hussain, S (2019) Decolonising gender in South Asia: a border thinking perspective. Third World Thematics: A TWQ Journal 4, 261–270.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ingram, BD (2018) Revival from Below: The Deoband Movement and Global Islam. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Jaffrelot, C (1996) The Hindu Nationalist Movement and Indian Politics: 1925 to the 1990s: Strategies of Identity-building, Implantation and Mobilisation. London: Hurst.Google Scholar
Jaffrelot, C (2007) Hindu Nationalism: A Reader. Princeton: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jaffrelot, C (2015) The idea of the Hindu race in the writings of the Hindu nationalist ideologues in the 1920s and the 1930s: a concept between two cultures. In Robb, P (ed.), The Concept of Race in South Asia: Understanding and Perspectives. Delhi: Oxford University Press, pp. 327–354.Google Scholar
Jaffrelot, C (2021) Modi's India: Hindu Nationalism and the Rise of Ethnic Democracy. Schoch C (trans.). Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Jaffrelot, C and Therwath, I (2007) The Sangh Parivar and the Hindu diaspora in the West: what kind of ‘long-distance nationalism’? International Political Sociology 1, 278–295.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jain, B (2020) Tablighi Jamaat assembly caused the spread of Covid among many persons: Home Ministry in Rajya Sabha. The Times of India, 21 September. Available at: https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/tablighi-jamaat-assembly-caused-spread-of-covid-among-many-persons-home-ministry-in-rajya-sabha/articleshow/78233171.cms (accessed 13 August 2021).Google Scholar
JM (2014) Hindu Nationalism in the United States: A Report on Nonprofit Groups. Available at: http://www.sacw.net/IMG/pdf/US_HinduNationalism_Nonprofits.pdf (accessed 14 August 2021).Google Scholar
John, A (2020) The MHA's stranglehold over Tablighi foreigners forced them into plea bargaining. The Caravan, 29 August. Available at: https://caravanmagazine.in/law/TJ-foreigners-forced-into-plea-bargaining (accessed 13 August 2021).Google Scholar
Kapur, R (2007) The citizen and the migrant: Postcolonial anxieties, law, and the politics of exclusion/inclusion. Theoretical Inquiries in Law 8, 537–570.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kapur, R (2018) Gender, Alterity and Human Rights: Freedom in a Fishbowl. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kapur, R (2020) Gender and the ‘faith’ in law: equality, secularism, and the rise of the Hindu nation. Journal of Law and Religion 35, 407–431.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kapur, R (2021) On violence, revolution and the self. Postcolonial Studies 24, 251–269.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kennedy, D (2012) The international human rights regime: Still part of the problem? In Dickinson, R et al. (eds), Examining Critical Perspectives on Human Rights. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 19–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Khan, AH (2021) Receiving traditions of civility, remaking conditions of cohabitation: a genealogy of politics, law and piety in South Asia. In Chalmers, S and Pahuja, S (eds), Routledge Handbook of International Law and the Humanities. London: Routledge, pp. 45–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Knox, RJ (2016) Valuing race? Stretched Marxism and the logic of imperialism. London Review of International Law 4, 81–126.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kostal, RW (2008) A Jurisprudence of Power: Victorian Empire and the Rule of Law. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Losurdo, D (2011) Liberalism: A Counter-history. Elliot, G (trans.). London: Verso.Google Scholar
Lugones, M (2010) The coloniality of gender. In Mignolo, WD and Escobar, A (eds), Globalization and the Decolonial Option. London: Routledge, pp. 369–390.Google Scholar
Madhok, S (2021) Vernacular Rights Culture: The Politics of Origins, Human Rights and Gendered Struggles for Justice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mahmood, S (2011a) Politics of Piety: The Islamic Revival and the Feminist Subject. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Mahmood, S (2011b) Religion, feminism and empire: the new ambassadors of Islamophobia. In Alcoff, LM and Cuputo, JD (eds), Feminism, Sexuality, and the Return of Religion. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, pp. 77–102.Google Scholar
Marks, S (2008) Exploitation as an international legal concept. In Marks, S (ed.), International Law on the Left: Re-Examining Marxist Legacies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 281–308.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Massoud, MF and Moore, KM (2020) Shari'a consciousness: law and lived religion among California Muslims. Law and Social Inquiry 45, 787–817.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mawani, R (2010) Colonial Proximities: Crossracial Encounters and Juridical Truths in British Columbia, 1871–1921. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press.Google Scholar
Mbembe, A (2017) Critique of Black Reason. Dubois, L (trans.). Durham, NC: Duke UniversityGoogle Scholar
Medovi, L (2012) Dogma-line racism: Islamophobia and the second axis of race. Social Text 30, 43–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mehta, US (1999) Liberalism and Empire: A Study in Nineteenth-century British Liberal Thought. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mendoza, B (2016) Coloniality of gender and power: from postcoloniality to decoloniality. In Disch, L and Hawkesworth, M (eds), The Oxford Handbook of Feminist Theory. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 100–121.Google Scholar
Metcalf, B (2003) Travelers’ tales in the Tablīghī Jamā‘at. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 588, 136–148.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Metcalf, B (2004) ‘Traditionalists’ Islamic activism: Deoband, Tablighis, and Talibs. In Metcalf, B (ed.), Islamic Contestations: Essays on Muslims in India and Pakistan. Delhi; New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 265–284.Google Scholar
Mignolo, WD (2002) The geopolitics of knowledge and the colonial difference. The South Atlantic Quarterly 101, 57–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mignolo, WD (2009a) Epistemic disobedience, independent thought and decolonial freedom. Theory, Culture & Society 26, 159–181.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mignolo, WD (2009b) Introduction: Coloniality of power and decolonial thinking. In Mignolo, WD and Escobar, A (eds), Globalization and the Decolonial Option. London: Routledge, pp. 1–21.Google Scholar
Mohanty, CT (1991) Under Western eyes: feminist scholarship and colonial discourses. In Mohanty, CT, Russo, A and Torres, L (eds), Third World Women and the Politics of Feminism. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, pp. 51–80.Google Scholar
Mukerji, UN (1929) [1909] A Dying Race. Calcutta: Bhaskar MukerjeeGoogle Scholar
Mutua, M (2000) Critical race theory and international law: the view of an insider-outsider. Villanova Law Review 45, 841–854.Google Scholar
Mutua, M (2001) Savages, victims, and saviors: the metaphor of human rights. Harvard International Law Journal 42, 201–245.Google Scholar
Nash, JC (2019) Black Feminism Reimagined: After Intersectionality. Durham: Duke University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nesbitt, N (2008) Universal Emancipation: The Haitian Revolution and the Radical Enlightenment. Charlottesville, VA: University Virginia Press.Google Scholar
Nesiah, V (2020) The law of humanity has a canon: translating racialized world order into ‘colorblind’ law. PoLar: Political and Legal Anthropological Review, 17 November. Available at: https://polarjournal.org/?s=Nesiah (accessed 24 January 2021).Google Scholar
Organiser, The (2020) The antechamber of fundamentalism and terrorism. 23 April (copy on file).Google Scholar
Otto, D (1997) Rethinking the ‘universality’ of human rights law. Columbia Human Rights Law Review 29, 1–46.Google Scholar
Pandey, G (1993) Which of us are Hindus? In Pandey, P (ed.), Hindus and Others: The Question of Identity in India Today. New Delhi: Viking Press, pp. 238–272.Google Scholar
Patil, T (2017) The politics of race, nationhood and Hindu nationalism: the case of Gujarat riots of 2002. Asian Journal of Social Science 45, 27–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pieri, Z (2015) Tablighi Jamaat and the Quest for the London Mega Mosque: Continuity and Change. London: Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Press Release (2017) Hindu Swayamsevak Sangh USA, 28 August. Available at: https://www.hssus.org/blog/hss-releases-book-ms-golwalkar-his-vision-and-mission-new-york (accessed 14 August 2021).Google Scholar
Puar, JK (2007) Terrorist Assemblages: Homonationalism in Queer Times. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.Google Scholar
Quijano, A (2007) Coloniality and modernity/rationality. Cultural Studies 21, 168–178.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rajagopal, A (2000) Hindu nationalism in the US: changing configurations of political practice. Ethnic and Racial Studies 23, 467–496.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rao, A (2009) The Caste Question : Dalits and the Politics of Modern India. Berkeley: University of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rao, R (2020) Nationalisms by, against and beyond the Indian state. Radical Philosophy 2, 17–26.Google Scholar
Razack, S (2008) Casting Out: The Eviction of Muslims from Western Law and Politics. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Razack, S (2022) Nothing Has to Make Sense: Upholding White Supremacy through Anti-Muslim Racism. Minnesota: Minnesota University Press.Google Scholar
Redding, J (2018) Islamic law in South Asia: a testament to diversity. In Emon, AM and Ahmed, R (eds), The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Law. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 673–698.Google Scholar
Roth, BR (2008) Marxian insights for the human rights project. In Marks, S (ed.), International Law on the Left: Re-Examining Marxist Legacies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 220–251. Black Radical Tradition. Chapel Hill: University ofCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sarda, HB (1906) Hindu Superiority: An Attempt to Determine the Position of the Hindu Race in the Scale of Nations. Ajmer: Rajputana Printing Works.Google Scholar
Savarkar, VD (1923) Essentials of Hindutva. Nagpur: Independently Published.Google Scholar
Savarkar, VD (1949 [1929]) Hindutva: Who Is Hindu? 4th edn. Poona City: SP Gokhale.Google Scholar
Saxena, S (2018) Court'ing Hindu nationalism: law and the rise of modern Hindutva. Contemporary South Asia 26, 378–399.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sayyid, S (2014) A measure of Islamophobia. Islamophobia Studies Journal 2, 10–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sexton, J (2016) The social life of social death: on Afro-pessimism and Black optimism. In Agathangelou, AM and Killian, KD (eds), Time, Temporality and Violence in International Relations: (De)Fatalizing the Present, Forging Radical Alternatives. New York: Routledge, pp. 61–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spivak, G (1988) Can the subaltern speak? In Nelson, C and Grossberg, L (eds), Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture. London: Macmillan Education UK, pp. 273–313.Google Scholar
Stoler, AL (2016) Duress: Imperial Durabilities in Our Times. Durham: Duke University Press.Google Scholar
Thapar, R et al. (2016) On Nationalism. New Delhi: Aleph Book Company.Google Scholar
Thomas, C (2000) Critical race theory and postcolonial development theory: observations on methodology. Villanova Law Review 45, 1195–1220.Google Scholar
Tilak, BG (1925) The Artic Home in the Vedas. Poona City: Messrs Tilak Bros Gaikwar Wada.Google Scholar
Times of India, The (2020) Coronavirus scare in Indore: Rangpanchami celebrations masked by fears of infection. 15 March. Available at: https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/indore/rangpanchami-celebrations-masked-by-fears-of-infection/articleshow/74632104.cms (accessed 13 January 2022).Google Scholar
TTD.News (2020) March. Available at: http://news.tirumala.org/2020/03/page/6/ (accessed 13 August 2021).Google Scholar
van der Veer, P (1999) Hindus: a superior race. Nations and Nationalism 5, 419–430.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Warren, CL (2018) Ontological Terror: Blackness, Nihilism, and Emancipation. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.Google Scholar
Wilderson, FB III (2020) Afropessimism. New York: Liveright Publishing Corporation.Google Scholar
Abbas, T (2019) Islamophobia and Radicalisation: A Vicious Cycle. New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
About Us (2020) Hindu Swayamsevak Sangh USA. Available at: https://www.hssus.org/about-us (accessed 13 October 2020).Google Scholar
Abu-Lughod, L (2013) Do Muslim Women Need Saving? Cambridge: Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Achiume, ET and Carbado, DW (2021) Critical race theory meets Third World approaches to international law. UCLA Law Review 67, 1462–1502.Google Scholar
Alexiev, A (2005) Tablighi Jamaa'at: Jihad's stealthy legions. Middle East Quarterly 12, 3–11.Google Scholar
Ali, J (2003) Islamic revivalism: the case of the Tablīghī Jamā‘at. Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs 23, 173–181.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ali, JA (2011) Piety among Tablīghī women. Contemporary Islam: Dynamics of Muslim Life 5, 225–247.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Allen, C (2010) Islamophobia. Burlington: Ashgate.Google Scholar
Anghie, A (2004) Imperialism, Sovereignty and the Making of International Law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Anghie, A et al. (eds) (2003) The Third World and International Order: Law, Politics, and Globalization. Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Asad, T (2000) What do human rights do? An anthropological enquiry. Theory & Event 4, muse.jhu.edu/article/32601.Google Scholar
Asad, T (2003) Formations of the Secular: Christianity, Islam, Modernity. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Ashutosh, I (2022) The transnational routes of White and Hindu nationalisms. Ethnic and Racial Studies 45, 319–339.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ayoub, AA (2020) A Muslim registry: a look at past practices and what may come next. In Choudhury, CA and Beydoun, KA (eds), Islamophobia and the Law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 153–169.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aziz, S (2021) Orientalism, empire, and the racial Muslim. In Sonn, T (ed.), Overcoming Orientalism: Essays in Honor of John L Esposito. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 221–244.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aziz, SF (2022) The Racial Muslim: When Racism Quashes Religious Freedom. Oakland: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Bajoria, J (2020) Corona jihad is only the latest manifestation: Islamophobia in India has been years in the making. Human Rights Watch, 5 May. Available at: https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/05/01/coronajihad-only-latest-manifestation-islamophobia-india-has-been-years-making (accessed 12 January 2022).Google Scholar
Barreto, J-M (2013) Human Rights from a Third World Perspective: Critique, History and International Law. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.Google Scholar
Brown, W (2002) Suffering the paradoxes of rights. In Brown, W and Halley, J (eds), Left Legalism/Left Critique. Durham: Duke University Press, pp. 420–434.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burton, F and Stewart, S (2008) Tablighi Jamaat: an indirect line to terrorism. Stratfor: WorldView, 23 January. Available at: https://worldview.stratfor.com/article/tablighi-jamaat-indirect-line-terrorism (accessed 14 January 2022).Google Scholar
Carbado, DW (2005) Racial naturalization. American Quarterly 57, 633–658.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Césaire, A (1972) Discourse on Colonialism. New York: Monthly Review Press.Google Scholar
Chakrabarti, A (2018) Faith and Social Movements: Religious Reform in Contemporary India. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Chandler, D (ed.) (2002) Rethinking Human Rights: Critical Approaches to International Politics. Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chatterji, AP, Hansen, TB and Jaffrelot, C (2019) Majoritarian State: How Hindu Nationalism Is Changing India. Uttar Pradesh: Harper Collins India.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chimni, BS (2017) International Law and World Order: A Critique of Contemporary Approaches, 2nd edn. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chishti, S (2021) The nightmare: the Modi government's persecution of the Tablighi Jamaat. The Caravan: A Journal of Politics and Culture. 30 January. Available at: https://caravanmagazine.in/politics/nightmare-persecution-tablighi-jamaat (accessed 13 January 2022).Google Scholar
Choudhury, CA and Beydoun, KA (eds) (2020) Islamophobia and the Law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cossman, B and Kapur, R (2001) Secularism's Last Sigh? Hindutva and the (Mis)Rule of Law. Delhi; Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Da Silva, DF (2007) Towards a Global Idea of Race. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar
Silva DF, Da and Harris, M (eds) (2018) Routledge Handbook of Law, Race and the Postcolonial. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Darian-Smith, E (2010) Religion, Race, Rights: Landmarks in the History of Modern Anglo-American Law. Oxford: Hart Publishing.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
De Sousa Santos, B (2014) Epistemologies of the South: Justice Against Epistemicide. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Desautel, J (2021) A prolegomenon to the study of racial ideology in the era of international human rights. UCLA Law Review 67, 1536–1578.Google Scholar
Dhanda, M (2015) Anti-castism and misplaced nativism: mapping caste as an aspect of race. Radical Philosophy 192, 33–43.Google Scholar
Douzinas, C (2000) The End of Human Rights: Critical Legal Thought at the Turn of the Century. Oxford: Hart.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Douzinas, C (2007) Human Rights and Empire: The Political Philosophy of Cosmopolitanism. London: Routledge-Cavendish.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
El-Enany, N (2020) (B)ordering Britain: Law, Race and Empire. Manchester: Manchester University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ellis-Petersen, H (2020) British Muslims held for two months in India claim religious persecution. The Guardian, 17 June. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jun/17/british-muslims-held-in-india-accused-of-violating-coronavirus-lockdown (accessed 14 August 2021).Google Scholar
Esposito, JL and Kalin, I (eds) (2011) Islamophobia: The Challenge of Pluralism in the 21st Century. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Fanon, F (1963 [1961]) The Wretched of the Earth. Farrington, C (trans.). New York: Grove Press.Google Scholar
Fanon, F (1986 [1952]) Black Skin, White Masks. Markmamm, CL (trans.). London: Pluto Press.Google Scholar
Fitzpatrick, P (1987) Racism and the innocence of law. Journal of Law and Society 14, 119–132.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fitzpatrick, P (1989) ‘The desperate vacuum’: imperialism and law in the experience of the Enlightenment. Droit et société 13, 347–358.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fitzpatrick, P (ed.) (1995) Nationalism, Racism and the Rule of Law. Aldershot: Dartmouth.Google Scholar
Fitzpatrick, P (2001) Modernism and the Grounds of Law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Foucault, M (1977) Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. Sheridan, A (trans.). New York: Vintage Books.Google Scholar
Gandhi, L (1998) Postcolonial Theory: A Critical Introduction. New York: Columbia University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gettleman, J, Schultz, K and Raj, S (2020) In India, coronavirus fans religious hatred. The New York Times, 12 April. Available at: https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/12/world/asia/india-coronavirus-muslims-bigotry.html (accessed 12 August 2021).Google Scholar
Ghoshal, S (2020) Race, religion and the politics of counting: historicizing Hindu nationalism. In Ray, A and Banerjee-Dube, I (eds), Nation, Nationalism and the Public Sphere: Religious Politics in India. New Delhi: SAGE Publications, pp. 83–105CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Golder, B (2014) Beyond redemption? Problematising the critique of human rights in contemporary international legal thought. London Review of International Law 2, 77–114.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Golder, B (2015) Foucault and the Politics of Rights. Stanford: Stanford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Golwalkar, MS (1939) We or Our Nationhood Defined. Nagpur: Bharat Publications.Google Scholar
Golwalkar, MS (1966) Bunch of Thoughts. Bangalore: Vikrama Prakashan.Google Scholar
Goodwin, M (2020) Unmasking Islamophobia: anti-Muslim hostility and/as White supremacy. Journal of the American Academy of Religion 88, 354–386.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gordon, R (2000) Critical race theory and international law: convergence and divergence. Villanova Law Review 45, 827–840.Google Scholar
Grandin, G (2015) The Empire of Necessity: Slavery, Freedom, and Deception in the New World. New York: Picador.Google Scholar
Guruji, Golwalkar (2021) Hindu Swayamsevak Sangh USA. Available at: https://www.hssus.org/guruji-golwalkar (accessed 6 April 2021).Google Scholar
Hafez, F (2018) Schools of thought in Islamophobia studies: prejudice, racism, and decoloniality. Islamophobia Studies Journal 4, 210–225.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hamzić, V (2019) The Dera paradigm: homecoming of the gendered other. Ethnoscripts 21, 34–57.Google Scholar
Hansen, TB (1999) The Saffron Wave: Democracy and Hindu Nationalism in Modern India. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hartman, SV (1997) Scenes of Subjection: Terror, Slavery, and Self-making in Nineteenth-century America. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Hassan, O and Hammond, A (2011) The rise and fall of American's freedom agenda in Afghanistan: counter-terrorism, nation-building and democracy. International Journal of Human Rights 15, 532–551.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hindu Swayamsevak Sangh USA (2020) Facebook, 3 June. Available at: https://www.facebook.com/hssus/photos/pcb.10156898715471394/10156900108986394/ (accessed 14 August 2021).Google Scholar
Hirschkind, C and Mahmood, S (2002) Feminism, the Taliban, and politics of counter-insurgency. Anthropological Quarterly 75, 339–354.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hunt, L (2007) Inventing Human Rights: A History. New York: WW Norton.Google Scholar
Hussein, N and Hussain, S (2019) Decolonising gender in South Asia: a border thinking perspective. Third World Thematics: A TWQ Journal 4, 261–270.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ingram, BD (2018) Revival from Below: The Deoband Movement and Global Islam. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Jaffrelot, C (1996) The Hindu Nationalist Movement and Indian Politics: 1925 to the 1990s: Strategies of Identity-building, Implantation and Mobilisation. London: Hurst.Google Scholar
Jaffrelot, C (2007) Hindu Nationalism: A Reader. Princeton: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jaffrelot, C (2015) The idea of the Hindu race in the writings of the Hindu nationalist ideologues in the 1920s and the 1930s: a concept between two cultures. In Robb, P (ed.), The Concept of Race in South Asia: Understanding and Perspectives. Delhi: Oxford University Press, pp. 327–354.Google Scholar
Jaffrelot, C (2021) Modi's India: Hindu Nationalism and the Rise of Ethnic Democracy. Schoch C (trans.). Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Jaffrelot, C and Therwath, I (2007) The Sangh Parivar and the Hindu diaspora in the West: what kind of ‘long-distance nationalism’? International Political Sociology 1, 278–295.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jain, B (2020) Tablighi Jamaat assembly caused the spread of Covid among many persons: Home Ministry in Rajya Sabha. The Times of India, 21 September. Available at: https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/tablighi-jamaat-assembly-caused-spread-of-covid-among-many-persons-home-ministry-in-rajya-sabha/articleshow/78233171.cms (accessed 13 August 2021).Google Scholar
JM (2014) Hindu Nationalism in the United States: A Report on Nonprofit Groups. Available at: http://www.sacw.net/IMG/pdf/US_HinduNationalism_Nonprofits.pdf (accessed 14 August 2021).Google Scholar
John, A (2020) The MHA's stranglehold over Tablighi foreigners forced them into plea bargaining. The Caravan, 29 August. Available at: https://caravanmagazine.in/law/TJ-foreigners-forced-into-plea-bargaining (accessed 13 August 2021).Google Scholar
Kapur, R (2007) The citizen and the migrant: Postcolonial anxieties, law, and the politics of exclusion/inclusion. Theoretical Inquiries in Law 8, 537–570.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kapur, R (2018) Gender, Alterity and Human Rights: Freedom in a Fishbowl. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kapur, R (2020) Gender and the ‘faith’ in law: equality, secularism, and the rise of the Hindu nation. Journal of Law and Religion 35, 407–431.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kapur, R (2021) On violence, revolution and the self. Postcolonial Studies 24, 251–269.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kennedy, D (2012) The international human rights regime: Still part of the problem? In Dickinson, R et al. (eds), Examining Critical Perspectives on Human Rights. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 19–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Khan, AH (2021) Receiving traditions of civility, remaking conditions of cohabitation: a genealogy of politics, law and piety in South Asia. In Chalmers, S and Pahuja, S (eds), Routledge Handbook of International Law and the Humanities. London: Routledge, pp. 45–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Knox, RJ (2016) Valuing race? Stretched Marxism and the logic of imperialism. London Review of International Law 4, 81–126.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kostal, RW (2008) A Jurisprudence of Power: Victorian Empire and the Rule of Law. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Losurdo, D (2011) Liberalism: A Counter-history. Elliot, G (trans.). London: Verso.Google Scholar
Lugones, M (2010) The coloniality of gender. In Mignolo, WD and Escobar, A (eds), Globalization and the Decolonial Option. London: Routledge, pp. 369–390.Google Scholar
Madhok, S (2021) Vernacular Rights Culture: The Politics of Origins, Human Rights and Gendered Struggles for Justice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mahmood, S (2011a) Politics of Piety: The Islamic Revival and the Feminist Subject. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Mahmood, S (2011b) Religion, feminism and empire: the new ambassadors of Islamophobia. In Alcoff, LM and Cuputo, JD (eds), Feminism, Sexuality, and the Return of Religion. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, pp. 77–102.Google Scholar
Marks, S (2008) Exploitation as an international legal concept. In Marks, S (ed.), International Law on the Left: Re-Examining Marxist Legacies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 281–308.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Massoud, MF and Moore, KM (2020) Shari'a consciousness: law and lived religion among California Muslims. Law and Social Inquiry 45, 787–817.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mawani, R (2010) Colonial Proximities: Crossracial Encounters and Juridical Truths in British Columbia, 1871–1921. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press.Google Scholar
Mbembe, A (2017) Critique of Black Reason. Dubois, L (trans.). Durham, NC: Duke UniversityGoogle Scholar
Medovi, L (2012) Dogma-line racism: Islamophobia and the second axis of race. Social Text 30, 43–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mehta, US (1999) Liberalism and Empire: A Study in Nineteenth-century British Liberal Thought. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mendoza, B (2016) Coloniality of gender and power: from postcoloniality to decoloniality. In Disch, L and Hawkesworth, M (eds), The Oxford Handbook of Feminist Theory. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 100–121.Google Scholar
Metcalf, B (2003) Travelers’ tales in the Tablīghī Jamā‘at. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 588, 136–148.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Metcalf, B (2004) ‘Traditionalists’ Islamic activism: Deoband, Tablighis, and Talibs. In Metcalf, B (ed.), Islamic Contestations: Essays on Muslims in India and Pakistan. Delhi; New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 265–284.Google Scholar
Mignolo, WD (2002) The geopolitics of knowledge and the colonial difference. The South Atlantic Quarterly 101, 57–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mignolo, WD (2009a) Epistemic disobedience, independent thought and decolonial freedom. Theory, Culture & Society 26, 159–181.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mignolo, WD (2009b) Introduction: Coloniality of power and decolonial thinking. In Mignolo, WD and Escobar, A (eds), Globalization and the Decolonial Option. London: Routledge, pp. 1–21.Google Scholar
Mohanty, CT (1991) Under Western eyes: feminist scholarship and colonial discourses. In Mohanty, CT, Russo, A and Torres, L (eds), Third World Women and the Politics of Feminism. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, pp. 51–80.Google Scholar
Mukerji, UN (1929) [1909] A Dying Race. Calcutta: Bhaskar MukerjeeGoogle Scholar
Mutua, M (2000) Critical race theory and international law: the view of an insider-outsider. Villanova Law Review 45, 841–854.Google Scholar
Mutua, M (2001) Savages, victims, and saviors: the metaphor of human rights. Harvard International Law Journal 42, 201–245.Google Scholar
Nash, JC (2019) Black Feminism Reimagined: After Intersectionality. Durham: Duke University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nesbitt, N (2008) Universal Emancipation: The Haitian Revolution and the Radical Enlightenment. Charlottesville, VA: University Virginia Press.Google Scholar
Nesiah, V (2020) The law of humanity has a canon: translating racialized world order into ‘colorblind’ law. PoLar: Political and Legal Anthropological Review, 17 November. Available at: https://polarjournal.org/?s=Nesiah (accessed 24 January 2021).Google Scholar
Organiser, The (2020) The antechamber of fundamentalism and terrorism. 23 April (copy on file).Google Scholar
Otto, D (1997) Rethinking the ‘universality’ of human rights law. Columbia Human Rights Law Review 29, 1–46.Google Scholar
Pandey, G (1993) Which of us are Hindus? In Pandey, P (ed.), Hindus and Others: The Question of Identity in India Today. New Delhi: Viking Press, pp. 238–272.Google Scholar
Patil, T (2017) The politics of race, nationhood and Hindu nationalism: the case of Gujarat riots of 2002. Asian Journal of Social Science 45, 27–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pieri, Z (2015) Tablighi Jamaat and the Quest for the London Mega Mosque: Continuity and Change. London: Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Press Release (2017) Hindu Swayamsevak Sangh USA, 28 August. Available at: https://www.hssus.org/blog/hss-releases-book-ms-golwalkar-his-vision-and-mission-new-york (accessed 14 August 2021).Google Scholar
Puar, JK (2007) Terrorist Assemblages: Homonationalism in Queer Times. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.Google Scholar
Quijano, A (2007) Coloniality and modernity/rationality. Cultural Studies 21, 168–178.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rajagopal, A (2000) Hindu nationalism in the US: changing configurations of political practice. Ethnic and Racial Studies 23, 467–496.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rao, A (2009) The Caste Question : Dalits and the Politics of Modern India. Berkeley: University of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rao, R (2020) Nationalisms by, against and beyond the Indian state. Radical Philosophy 2, 17–26.Google Scholar
Razack, S (2008) Casting Out: The Eviction of Muslims from Western Law and Politics. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Razack, S (2022) Nothing Has to Make Sense: Upholding White Supremacy through Anti-Muslim Racism. Minnesota: Minnesota University Press.Google Scholar
Redding, J (2018) Islamic law in South Asia: a testament to diversity. In Emon, AM and Ahmed, R (eds), The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Law. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 673–698.Google Scholar
Roth, BR (2008) Marxian insights for the human rights project. In Marks, S (ed.), International Law on the Left: Re-Examining Marxist Legacies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 220–251. Black Radical Tradition. Chapel Hill: University ofCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sarda, HB (1906) Hindu Superiority: An Attempt to Determine the Position of the Hindu Race in the Scale of Nations. Ajmer: Rajputana Printing Works.Google Scholar
Savarkar, VD (1923) Essentials of Hindutva. Nagpur: Independently Published.Google Scholar
Savarkar, VD (1949 [1929]) Hindutva: Who Is Hindu? 4th edn. Poona City: SP Gokhale.Google Scholar
Saxena, S (2018) Court'ing Hindu nationalism: law and the rise of modern Hindutva. Contemporary South Asia 26, 378–399.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sayyid, S (2014) A measure of Islamophobia. Islamophobia Studies Journal 2, 10–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sexton, J (2016) The social life of social death: on Afro-pessimism and Black optimism. In Agathangelou, AM and Killian, KD (eds), Time, Temporality and Violence in International Relations: (De)Fatalizing the Present, Forging Radical Alternatives. New York: Routledge, pp. 61–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spivak, G (1988) Can the subaltern speak? In Nelson, C and Grossberg, L (eds), Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture. London: Macmillan Education UK, pp. 273–313.Google Scholar
Stoler, AL (2016) Duress: Imperial Durabilities in Our Times. Durham: Duke University Press.Google Scholar
Thapar, R et al. (2016) On Nationalism. New Delhi: Aleph Book Company.Google Scholar
Thomas, C (2000) Critical race theory and postcolonial development theory: observations on methodology. Villanova Law Review 45, 1195–1220.Google Scholar
Tilak, BG (1925) The Artic Home in the Vedas. Poona City: Messrs Tilak Bros Gaikwar Wada.Google Scholar
Times of India, The (2020) Coronavirus scare in Indore: Rangpanchami celebrations masked by fears of infection. 15 March. Available at: https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/indore/rangpanchami-celebrations-masked-by-fears-of-infection/articleshow/74632104.cms (accessed 13 January 2022).Google Scholar
TTD.News (2020) March. Available at: http://news.tirumala.org/2020/03/page/6/ (accessed 13 August 2021).Google Scholar
van der Veer, P (1999) Hindus: a superior race. Nations and Nationalism 5, 419–430.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Warren, CL (2018) Ontological Terror: Blackness, Nihilism, and Emancipation. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.Google Scholar
Wilderson, FB III (2020) Afropessimism. New York: Liveright Publishing Corporation.Google Scholar